tSMER^LD 


OF  The 
-        or 


JOHN    BARRtTT 

o/M€C  rom 


2  JAaKSON    PLACE 
WASHINGTON, O.C. 

April  13,  1909, 


Dear  Sirj 

His  Excellency  the  Peruvian  Uinister  to  the  United  States  has  placed 
in  D(7  hands  a  fe«r  copies  of  a  book  on  his  country,  entitled 
"Eie  Haw  Peru",  liy  Uarie  xiohinson  .Vri^t,  to  be  distributed 
among  the  representatiye  libraries  of  the  United  Ctatea.  I, 
therefore,  have  pleasure  in  forwarding  you  under  separate  cover 

/     one  of  these  volumes,  with  the  irequest  that  you  will  be  good 

enou^  not  only  to  aclmowledge  to  me  but  directly  to  JfK  Felipe 

/-^ 

Pardo,  Uinlster  of  Pern,  Washington,  I>.  C«,  e^qpressing  to  che 

latter  your  appreciation  of  his  courtesy* 

I  take  advantage  also  of  this  opportunity  to  enclose  a  little  pamphlet 

descriptive  of  the  work  and  scope  of  the  International  Bureau* 

Yours  truly. 
Librarian, 

University  of  California, 
Berkeley,  Cal. 


Snc.  /a 


THE-OLDANDTHE 
NEW  PERU- 

A  STORY  OF  THE  ANCIENT  INHERITANCE  AND  THE  MODERN 
GROWTH  AND  ENTERPRISE  OF  A  GREAT  NATION 


BY 

MARIE  ROBINSON  WRIGHT 

MEMBER  OF  THE  GEOGRAPHICAL   SOCIETY  OF  AMERICA.  GEOGRAPHICAL  SOCIETY  OF   BRAZIL,  HISTORICAL  AND 
SCIENTIFIC  INSTITUTE  OF  SAO   PAULO,  GEOGRAPHICAL  SOCIETY  OF   LA   PAZ 


AUTHOR  OF 
PICTURESQUE  MEXICO;    THE  NEIV  BRAZIL;    THE  REPUBLIC  OF  CHILE;    BOLIVIM,   ETC. 


PHILADELPHIA:     PRINTED    AND    PUBLISHED    BY 

GEORGE  BARRIE  &  SONS 

LONDON:    C.  D.  CAZENOVE  &  SON.  26  HENRIETTA  STREET,  COVENT  Garden,  W.  C. 

PARIS:    19  Rue  Scribe 


.^o-^ 


^f^VJ^ 


COPYRIGHT,   1908,    BY   GEORGE   BARRIE   *   SONS 


y 


fuNJVERSITYJ 

*^  OF  ^        -^ 

fcCALIFOBHiS*' 


TO  THE  NOBLE  SON  OF  AN  ILLUSTRIOUS  SIRE,  A  PATRIOT  WITHOUT  REPROACH,  A  STATESMAN  OF  GENIUS 

His  ^xctlhm^  Mv.  f  osc  lUxXfo 

PRESIDENT  OF  PERU 

{■  lirtiicate  Slljr  ©Iti  anti  Z\)t  Nfto  iPrru 

WITH  SENTIMENTS  OF  ADMIRATION  AND  ESTEEM 

THE   AUTHOR 


I8OIIO 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 
DEDICATION 5 

LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 9 

INTRODUCTION 13 

CHAPTER  I 

ANCIENT   PERU-PRE-INCAIC   MONUMENTS 17' 

CHAPTER  H 

THE  RISE  OF  THE  CUZCO  DYNASTY 35  • 

CHAPTER  III 

THE   VAST   EMPIRE  OF  THE   INCAS 53 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE  SPANISH  DISCOVERY  AND  INVASION  UNDER  PIZARRO       65 

CHAPTER  V 

THE  CONQUEST  OF   PERU 77 

CHAPTER  VI 

THE  REIGN  OF  THE  VICEROYS 93 

CHAPTER  VII 

THE  CHURCH   IN  COLONIAL   DAYS 1 13 

CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  OVERTHROW  OF   SPANISH   AUTHORITY 127 

CHAPTER  IX 

PERU  UNDER   REPUBLICAN  GOVERNMENT 145 

CHAPTER  X 

THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  PRESIDENT  JOSE  PARDO  .  .  .      163 

CHAPTER  XI 

THE   POLITICAL  ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   REPUBLIC  ...      177 


PAGE 

CHAPTER  XII 

THE  CITY  OF  THE  KINGS  AND  ITS  BEAUTIFUL  SUBURBS      187     . 

CHAPTER  XIII 

PERUVIAN  HOSPITALITY  AND  CULTURE 203    ■ 

CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  NATIONAL  LIBRARY-PERUVIAN  WRITERS-PAINTING 

AND  ILLUSTRATIVE  ART 217 

CHAPTER  XV 

THE      OLDEST      UNIVERSITY      IN      AMERICA —  MODERN 

SCHOOLS  OF  PERU 233     . 

CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  BENEVOLENT  SOCIETIES  OF   PERU 247 

CHAPTER  XVII 

AREQUIPA— THE  MISTI— HARVARD  OBSERVATORY    ....     255     . 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

A  GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COUNTRY.  ......     269    . 

CHAPTER  XIX 

THE   WEALTH   OF   THE   GUANO   ISLANDS 283    • 

CHAPTER  XX 

CALLAO,    THE    CHIEF    SEAPORT    OF    PERU— STEAMSHIP 

LINES 291 

CHAPTER  XXI 

AGRICULTURE  AND  IRRIGATION  ON   THE  COAST 301       • 

CHAPTER  XXII 

TRUJILLO  AND  THE  CHICAMA  VALLEY 313 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE  COTTON  FIELDS  OF   PIURA 327    ■» 

7 


8 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

VINEYARDS  AND  ORCHARDS  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  COAST 

REGION 335  ■ 

CHAPTER  XXV 

TACNA  AND  ARICA 343 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

MINES  OF   THE   SIERRA  AND  OTHER    REGIONS 351 

CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE  OROYA   RAILWAY,  THE   HIGHEST   IN   THE   WORLD    .      367 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 

A  TRIP  OVER   THE   SOUTHERN    ROUTE-NEW   RAILWAYS 

AND  PUBLIC   ROADS 377 

CHAPTER  XXIX 

PASTURE    LANDS    OF    THE    PLATEAU-THE   ALPACA    AND 

THE  VICUNA  OF   PUNO 389 


CHAPTER  XXX 

CUZCO.  THE   ANCIENT   INCA  CAPITAL.   . 


397 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

THE  MONTANA  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS— THE  RUBBER  LANDS 

OF  LORETO 407 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

IQUITOS,  THE  CHIEF  PERUVIAN  PORT  OF  THE  AMAZON      417 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

NAVIGATION     AND     EXPLORATION     ON     THE     AMAZON 

WATERWAYS 425 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

FOREIGN  INTERESTS  IN  PERU— IMMIGRATION  AND  COLO- 
NIZATION        431 

CHAPTER  XXXV 

FINANCIAL     AND     COMMERCIAL     PROGRESS-MANUFAC- 
TURING  INDUSTRIES 439 

CHAPTER  XXXVI 

THE     PASSING    OF     THE     OLD     PERU -ITS     LEGACY    TO 

POSTERITY  — THE    DESTINY  OF  THE   NEW  PERU.  .   .     451 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

HIS  EXCELLENCY  DR.  JOSi  PARDO,  PRESIDENT  OF  THE 

PERUVIAN   REPUBLIC Fronts. 

THE  COAT-OF-ARMS  OF  PERU Title  page 

GIRDLE  FOUND  IN  THE  CEMETERY  OF  PACHACAMAC  ...  I7 
SOUTHWESTERN  PART  OF  PACHACAMAC  VIEWED  FROM 

THE  NORTH 18 

ENTRANCE  TO  THE  PRINCIPAL  PALACE  OF  PACHACAMAC  19 

THE  EASTERN  STREET  OF  PACHACAMAC 20 

TERRACES  OF  THE  SOUTHEAST  FRONT  OF  PACHACAMAC. 

WITH  CEMETERY  OF  SACRIFICED  WOMEN 21 

A  VIEW  OF  THE  SUN  TEMPLE  OF  PACHACAMAC,  SHOW- 
ING NICHED  WALLS 22 

RUINS  OF  THE  CONVENT.  PACHACAMAC 23 

HUACAS  FROM  THE  GRAVES  OF   PACHACAMAC 24 

PRE-INCAIC  POTTERY  FROM  PACHACAMAC 25 

CURIOUS  SYMBOLS  OF  PACHACAMAC  WORSHIP 26 

FACADE  OF  THE  PALACE  OF  CHAN-CHAN,  NEAR  TRUJILLO  27 

CARVED  TERRACES  OF  THE  PALACE  OF  CHAN-CHAN.   .   .  28 

ANIMAL  CARVINGS  ON  THE  WALLS  OF  CHAN-CHAN  ...  29 

RUINS  OF  CHAN-CHAN 30 

MORTUARY  CLOTH  WITH  SYMBOLIC  EMBLEMS 3 1 

FOUND  IN  THE  BURIAL  PLACE  OF  PACHACAMAC 32 

OLLANTAYTAMBO,    ONCE  THE  FAVORITE  RESIDENCE  OF 

THE  INCAS 34 

AN   INCAIC   DOORWAY 35 

TERRACE  OF  THE   INCA'S   PALACE.  OLLANTAYTAMBO  .   .  37 
WALL  OF  THE  PALACE  OF  ONE  OF  THE  INCAS,  CUZCO  .  38 
RUINS  OF   THE    PALACE   OF   MANCO-CCAPAC,  CUZCO  .   .  39 
NICHE    IN    THE    FACADE    OF    THE    PALACE    OF    MANCO- 
CCAPAC  41 

INCA  FOUNTAIN  AT  CUZCO 43 

RUINS  AT  OLLANTAYTAMBO 44 

STONE  WALLS  OF  THE  PALACE  OF  OLLANTA,  OLLANTAY- 
TAMBO      45 

RUINS  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  THE  INCA  VIRACOCHA,  NEAR 

CUZCO 46 

SEATS  FROM  WHICH  THE  INCA  AND  HIS  SUITE  VIEWED 

THE  SACRIFICES 47 

THE   RODADERO.   CUZCO.  SITE    CHOSEN    FOR    RUNNING 

CONTESTS  OF  THE   HUARACU 48 

FOREIGN  TOURISTS  AT  OLLANTAYTAMBO 50 

INCA    OBSERVATORY,    INTI-HUATANA.    AT    PISAC,    NEAR 

CUZCO 52 

CORNER-STONE  OF  AN  ANCIENT  FORTRESS.  CUZCO  .   .  53 
ANCIENT  STREET  OF  CUZCO.  SHOWING  INCAIC  WALLS  .  55 
PRINCIPAL    HALL    OF    THE    INCA    OBSERVATORY,    INTI- 
HUATANA  57 


PAGE 

SHOWING  THE  TWELVE-ANGLE  STONE.  RUINS  OF  CUZCO        5* 

THE   INCAS  BATH,  OLLANTAYTAMBO 59 

THE   HOUSE  OF  THE  SERPENTS,  CUZCO 61 

DOORWAY  OF   THE  OBSERVATORY,  INTI-HUATANA    ...        62 
THE  INCA'S  THRONE.  OVERLOOKING  THE  CITY  OF  CUZCO       64 

ANCIENT  STREET  OF  CUZCO 65 

RUINS  OF  AN   INCAS   PALACE 67 

THE  ANDENES,  OR  ARTIFICIAL   TERRACES,  CULTIVATED 

UNDER  THE  INCAS 68 

SEATS  CUT   IN  SOLID  STONE,  AT   KENKO.  NEAR  CUZCO       69 

ANCIENT   BRIDGE  OF  SANTA   TERESA.  CUZCO 70 

AN  INCAIC  STREET,  CUZCO 72 

ENTRANCE  TO  AN   INCAIC   HOUSE 74 

THE    DEATH    OF   ATAHUALLPA.      FROM    A    PAINTING    BY 

THE   PERUVIAN   ARTIST   LUIS  MONTERO 76 

COAT-OF-ARMS  OF   PIZARRO  GRANTED  BY  CHARLES  V. 

IN   HONOR  OF  THE  DISCOVERY  OF   PERU 77 

FRANCISCO      PIZARRO,     CONQUEROR     OF      PERU     AND 

FOUNDER  OF   LIMA 79 

GENEALOGY  OF   FRANCISCO  PIZARRO,  CONQUEROR  OF 

PERU 81 

CAJAMARCA,    WHERE    ATAHUALLPA    WAS     SEIZED     AND 

EXECUTED   BY   PIZARRO'S  ORDER 83 

PIZARRO  ON   THE   ISLAND  OF  GALLO,      FROM  A   PAINT- 
ING  BY  JUAN  O.  LEPIANI 85 

AUTOGRAPHS  OF  THE  FIRST  OFFICIALS  WHO  GOVERNED 

LIMA  WITH  PIZARRO 86 

A  DESCENDANT  OF   THE  CONQUERED  INCA 88 

COAT-OF-ARMS     GRANTED     PIZARRO     BY     CHARLES    V. 

AFTER  THE  CONQUEST  OF  CUZCO 90 

FACADE    OF    SAN    AGUSTIN    CHURCH,    LIMA,    SHOWING 

ELABORATE  CARVING  OF  COLONIAL   DAYS 92 

THE    FIRST    COAT-OF-ARMS    BESTOWED    ON    LIMA    BY 

CHARLES  V 95 

LIMA    RESIDENCE    OF  THE    MARQUIS    OF   TORRE-TAGLE 

DURING   THE  VICEREGAL   PERIOD,  SHOWING   "MIRA- 

DORES,-  OR  BALCONIES 95 

DOORWAY  OF  A  COLONIAL   PALACE  IN  CUZCO.  PERIOD 

FOLLOWING   THE  CONQUEST Q7 

CHURCH  OF  THE  COMPANIA,  AREQUIPA,  SHOWING   EX- 
QUISITE HAND  CARVING 99 

THE  KEY  OF  THE  CITY  OF  LIMA   .   .      102 

DOORWAY  OF  A  CHURCH   IN  AREQUIPA.  BUILT   DURING 

THE  COLONIAL   PERIOD 103 

ENTRANCE    TO  A  COLONIAL   INN.  CUZCO I06 

ONE  OF  THE  COLONIAL   PALACES  OF  AREQUIPA,  BUILT 

TWO  CENTURIES  AGO I07 

9 


lO 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

A  COLONIAL   AQUEDUCT Io8 

PATIO  OF  A  COLONIAL   HOUSE,  LIMA IIO 

THE  CHOIR  AND  ALTAR  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL  OF  LIMA— 

THE  ALTAR  OF  SOLID  SILVER 112 

ARMS   OF   THE   CATHEDRAL   OF  LIMA H3 

THE  CATHEDRAL.  LIMA 115 

INTERIOR  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL,  LIMA II7 

CHURCH  AND  PLAZUELA  OF  SAN   FRANCISCO,  LIMA.   .   .  II 8 
CONVENT  OF  SANTO  DOMINGO,  CUZCO.  BUILT  ON  THE 

FOUNDATIONS  OF  THE   TEMPLE  OF  THE  SUN    ....  II9 

CLOISTER  OF   LA   MERCED,  CUZCO I20 

CHURCH   OF  SAN  AGUSTIN,  LIMA    . 121 

CHOIR  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL  OF  CUZCO 122 

OLD  CHURCH  AT   URCOS I23 

CHURCH  OF  THE  COMPANIA  AT   PISCO I24 

PLAZA  DE  ARMAS,  THE   PRINCIPAL    PUBLIC   SQUARE  OF 

LIMA 126 

STATUE  OF  BOLIVAR,  LIMA I27 

PLAZA  OF  THE   INQUISITION,  LIMA I29 

THE  SENATE  CHAMBER,  LIMA I}3 

CHAMBER  OF   DEPUTIES,  LIMA 135 

THE  HISTORICAL   PALACE  OF  THE  VICEROYS,  LIMA.  .   .  139 

THE   MUNICIPAL    PALACE,  LIMA 14! 

ARMS  OF   PERU  AT  THE  TIME  OF  THE   INDEPENDENCE  .  I44 

MONUMENT   DOS  DE  MAYO I45 

DON  MANUEL   PARDO.  THE   FIRST   CIVIL   PRESIDENT   OF 

PERU 148 

THE   MORRO   OF  ARICA 1 50 

DON  MANUEL  CANDAMO-ELECTED  PRESIDENT  OF  PERU 

190J,  DIED  i()o4 152 

GENERAL  ANDRES  CACERES,  PRESIDENT  OF  PERU,  1886- 

i8qo  AND  1894-1895 155 

SCENE  ON   BOARD  A  PERUVIAN  WARSHIP 158 

COAT-OF-ARMS  OF   PERU 160 

ONE  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  STREETS  OF  LIMA,  DECORATED 

ON  A  NATIONAL   HOLIDAY 162 

POST   OFFICE,  LIMA 163 

PATIO  OF  THE  POST  OFFICE,  LIMA 165 

THE   PRESIDENTS  COACH    LEAVING    THE  GOVERNMENT 

PALACE  FOR  THE   HOUSE   OF  CONGRESS 166 

MONUMENT  TO  BOLOGNESl 168 

THE  WAR  ARSENAL,  LIMA 169 

INFANTRY   UNIFORM,  PERUVIAN  ARMY I70 

MR.  ROOT  AT  THE   NATIONAL  CLUB.  LIMA 171 

THE  CENTRAL  MARKET,  LIMA I72 

PERUVIAN   MARINES 173 

THE    PERUVIAN    IRONCLAD   CRAU.   IN    THE    HARBOR   OF 

CALLAO 174 

THE  UNVEILING  OF  BOLOGNESIS  STATUE   IN   LIMA  ...  1 76 

A  REVIEW  OF  THE  TROOPS,  LIMA 177 

HIS    EXCELLENCY    DR.    AUGUSTO    B.    LEGUIA,    ELECTED 
PRESIDENT  OF   PERU   igoS-igij,   TO  BE    INAUGURATED 

SEPTEMBER  24.  1908 178 

DR.    EUGENIO    LARRABURE    Y    UNANUE,   ELECTED    VICE- 
PRESIDENT  FOR  TERM  1908-191'.. 179 

THE  MILITARY  SCHOOL,  CHORILLOS 180 

DR.   SOLON    POLO,   MINISTER    OF    FOREIGN   AFFAIRS   IN 

PRESIDENT  JOSE   PARDO'S  CABINET l8r 

DR.  CARLOS    WASHBURN,    PRESIDENT    OF    DR.    PARDO'S 

CABINET 182 

THE  MINT.  LIMA 183 

REVIEW  OF  ARTILLERY  TROOPS,  LIMA 184 


PAGE 

BOLOGNESl  CIRCLE,  PASEO  COLON,  LIMA 186 

ENTRANCE   TO   MUNICIPAL    PARK 187 

THE   NATIONAL   MUSEUM,   LIMA 189 

THE  MUNICIPAL  INSTITUTE  OF   HYGIENE 190 

PLAZUELA  DE  LA   RECOLETA 191 

STATUE  OF  COLUMBUS  IN  THE   PASEO  COLON 192 

KIOSK  OF  PALMS,  EXPOSITION  PARK 193 

PAVILION   IN  EXPOSITION  PARK I94 

CHURCH  OF  SANTO   DOMINGO 195 

SAN    PEDRO,  THE   FASHIONABLE   CHURCH   OF   LIMA    ...  I96 

THE  BALTA   BRIDGE  OVER  THE   RIMAC   RIVER 197 

PASEO   COLON-THE   FAVORITE   DRIVEWAY  OF   LIMA    .   .  198 

THE  PRESENT  STANDARD  OF  LIMA,  AS  MODIFIED  IN  1808  .  2CX3 

A  PICTURESQUE  SUBURBAN  DRIVEWAY,  LIMA 202 

A  MODERN   PRIVATE   RESIDENCE  OF  LIMA 203 

ENTRANCE  TO  THE  BOTANICAL  GARDEN,  LIMA 205 

GRAND  STAND  OF  THE  JOCKEY  CLUB,  LIMA 2o6 

PRINCIPAL    HALL    OF    THE    INTERNATIONAL    REVOLVER 

CLUB,   LIMA 207 

THE  AMERICAN  LEGATION   AT   LIMA 2o8 

BARRANCO,  A  SEASIDE  SUBURB  OF   LIMA 209 

PARK  AT  BARRANCO 2IO 

STAIRWAY   OF   THE   NATIONAL   CLUB,  LIMA 211 

MAIN  CORRIDOR  OF  THE   NATIONAL  CLUB,  LIMA    ....  212 
ANNUAL    PROCESSION    IN    HONOR    OF    SAINT    ROSE    OF 

LIMA 213 

ROAD  TO  THE   BEACH,  CHORILLOS 214 

PORTRAIT.      BY  ALBERT   LYNCH 216 

DR.    RICARDO    PALMA,    DIRECTOR    OF    THE     NATIONAL 

LIBRARY,  LIMA     217 

INTERIOR  OF  THE  NATIONAL   LIBRARY.  LIMA 219 

PATIO  OF   THE   NATIONAL   LIBRARY,  LIMA 221 

DR.  JOSE    ANTONIO    MIRO    QUESADA,   THE    NESTOR    OF 

THE   PERUVIAN  PRESS 224 

COLUMBUS    BEFORE    THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   SALAMANCA. 

BY  IGNACIO  MERINO 225 

THE    DISILLUSION    OF    THE    ARTIST.      BY    DANIEL    HER- 
NANDEZ    226 

THE  CHARMER.      BY  ABELARDO  ALVAREZ   CALDERON  .   .  227 

UNE   PARISIENNE.      BY  ALBERT   LYNCH 228 

DOLCE   FAR   NIENTE.      BY   DANIEL   HERNANDEZ 230 

UNIVERSITY  OF  SAN   MARCOS.  LIMA 232 

DR.  LUIS  F.  VILLARAN.  RECTOR  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF 

SAN   MARCOS 233 

CLOISTER  OF  THE  NATIONAL  COLLEGE  OF  GUADALUPE, 

LIMA 235 

DR.  MANUEL  BARRIOS,  DEAN  OF  THE  FACULTY  OF  MEDI- 
CINE. LIMA 236 

THE   FACULTY  OF  MEDICINE,  LIMA 237 

DR.  JAVIER  PRADO  Y  UGARTECHE,  DEAN  OF  THE  LITER- 
ARY FACULTY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  SAN  MARCOS    ....  238 
THE   NATIONAL  SCHOOL  OF  AGRICULTURE,  LIMA   ....  239 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  TRADES,  LIMA 241 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  ENGINEERS,  LIMA 242 

THE  COLLEGE  OF  LAW,  LIMA 244 

ALAMEDA   DE   LOS  DESCALZOS.  LIMA 246 

STREET  SCENE  ON  THE  FEAST  DAY  OF  LA  MERCED,  LIMA  247 

OFFICES  OF  THE   BENEVOLENT   SOCIETY.  LIMA 249 

HOSPITAL  DOS  DE   MAYO,  LIMA 25 1 

MILITARY  HOSPITAL,  LIMA 252 

THE  CATHEDRAL.  AREQUIPA 254 

ARCH  AT  THE  ENTRANCE  TO  THE  CATHEDRAL,  AREQUIPA  255 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAOB 

THE  CRATER  OF  THE  MISTl 256 

AHEQUIPA  AND  THE  MlSTI 257 

A  CELEBRATION  OE  MASS  ON  THE  SUMMIT  OF  THE  MlSTI  258 

LOS   PORTALES,  AREQUIPA 259 

PLAZA  DE  ARMAS.  AREQUIPA 260 

STREET  SCENE.  AREQl'lPA 261 

CHURCH  OF  SANTO  DOMINGO.  AREQUIPA 262 

GENERAL   VIEW  OF  THE  BATHS  OF  YURA 26j 

AT  THE   BATHS  OF  YURA,  AREQUIPA 263 

BOLOGNESI   PARK.  AREQUIPA 264 

AVENIDA  DE  TINGO.  AREQUIPA 265 

HARVARD  OBSERVATORY  AT  AREQUIPA 266 

CHANCHAMAYO.  ON  THE  EASTERN  SLOPE  OF  THE  SIERRA  268 

ON  THE  WAY  TO  MARKET 269 

LAKE  OF   LA  VIUDA.  IN   THE   HIGH   SIERRA 270 

IN  THE  VALLEY  OF  ABANCAY 27I 

SCENE  ON   THE  TUMBES   RIVER 272 

MONZON   VALLEY.  IN  THE   HUALLAGA   REGION 275 

ANCON.  A  COAST   RESORT   NEAR  CALLAO 274 

THE  BELL    ROCK  OF   ETEN 275 

QUEBRADA  SANTA  ROSA.  ANCASH   DEPARTMENT 276 

NATIVE   BOATMEN   ON    LAKE  TITICACA 278 

A  LAKE   AMONG   THE   GLACIERS   OF   YAULl 280 

NATURAL  ARCH    OF    STONE  AT   HUANCANE.  NEAR   LAKE 

TITICACA 282 

PREPARING  GUANO  FOR  SHIPMENT 283 

THE   HOUR  OF  SIESTA   FOR   THE  GUANO  BIRDS 284 

THE   PELICAN  AT   HOME 285 

GUANO  ISLANDS  OF   LOBOS  DE  TIERRA 286 

DIGGING  GUANO  ON  THE  CHINCHA   ISLANDS 287 

A  GUANO   PORT.  CHINCHA   ISLANDS 288 

CALLE  DE  LIMA.  CALLAO 290 

MONUMENT   TO  ADMIRAL  GRAU.  CALLAO 29I 

THE   DOCKS  AT   CALLAO 292 

THE  CUSTOM   HOUSE.  CALLAO 293 

STATUE  OF  THE   LIBERATOR,  CALLAO 294 

UNLOADING   LUMBER  AT  CALLAO 295 

CALLAO    HARBOR 295 

PIER  OF  THE  ARSENAL.  CALLAO 296 

PASSENGERS    LANDING   AT   ETEN   FROM  A  STEAMER  OF 

THE   PACIFIC   LINE 297 

PREFECTURE,  CALLAO 298 

A  TYPICAL   HACIENDA  OF  THE  COAST    REGION 300 

PICTURESQUE  GARDEN  ON  A  RICE  PLANTATION 301 

IRRIGATING  CANAL  ON  A  PIURA   PLANTATION 302 

LOADING    SUGAR-CANE.    SANTA    BARBARA    PLANTATION. 

CANETE 303 

PIER  AND  WAREHOUSES  OF  THE  BRITISH   SUGAR  COM- 
PANY, LI.MITED.  AT  CERRO  AZUL 304 

FERREiJaFE,  a  FLOURISHING  CENTRE  OF  THE   RICE  IN- 
DUSTRY    305 

A  HOLIDAY   IN  CHICLAYO 306 

WORKMEN  ON  A  COAST   PLANTATION 307 

STREET  AND  OLD  CHURCH  OF  LAMBAYEQUE 307 

PATAPO,  DEPARTMENT  OF   LAMBAYEQUE 308 

HUARAZ,  CAPITAL  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  ANCASH  .   .  309 

PORT   OF   PACASMAYO 3I0 

THE  CHICAMA  RIVER.  DEPARTMENT  OF  LA  LIBERTAD.   .  312 

HUACO  DEL  SOL,  TRUJILLO 313 

GALLERY  OF  THE   PALACE  OF  JUSTICE,  TRUJILLO.  .  .  .  314 

CALLE   DEL  COMERCIO,  TRUJILLO 315 

PICTURESQUE   ROAD  THROUGH  A  SUGAR  ESTATE  ....  316 


PACE 

A  CORRAL  ON  A  SUGAR  ESTATE,  CHICAMA  VALLEY  ...  3 '7 

A  LOAD  OF  CANE   READY  FOR  THE   FACTORY 319 

MAIN  ENTRANCE  TO  A  SUGAR  HACIENDA  NEAR  TRUJILLO  J20 

THE  CHAPEL  OF  A  HACIENDA  AT  GALINDO 321 

PARK  OF  LA  LIBERTAD,  TRUJILLO 322 

ADMINISTRATION    HOUSE  OF  A  SUGAR   ESTATE   IN  THE 

CHICAMA  VALLEY 323 

A  SUGAR  FACTORY  OF   THE  CHICAMA   VALLEY 324 

PAITA,    THE     CHIEF     SHIPPING     PORT     FOR     PERUVIAN 

COTTON 326 

A  COTTON   PLANT  ON  A  PIURA   PLANTATION 327 

A  BUSY  THOROUtlHFARE  OF  CATACAOS 328 

ALGARROBA  TREES  ON  A  PIURA   PLANTATION 330 

IRON   BRIDGE  OVER  THE   PIURA   RIVER 331 

THE   MARKET   PLACE  AT  CATACAOS 332 

A  "BALSA"  LOADED  WITH   FREIGHT,  PAITA 334 

SUBMARINE  BLASTING  OFF  MOLLENDO 335 

MOQUEGUA,  A  WINE-GROWING  CENTRE  OF  THE  SOUTH- 
ERN COAST  REGION 336 

THE  LANDING    PIER  OF   THE   PORT  OF   PISCO 337 

AVENUE    OF    WILLOW    TREES    ON   A  SOUTHERN    COAST 

HACIENDA 338 

HARVESTING  ALFALFA  ON  THE  FRISCO  HACIENDA.  NEAR 

MOLLENDO 338 

SCENE  ON  A  POULTRY  FARM  IN  SOUTHERN  AREQUIPA  .  339 

A  MILK  VENDER   ON   HER  WAY  TO  MARKET 340 

THE   SAMA   VALLEY,  TACNA 342 

A  VENERABLE   PALM  OF   TACNA 343 

BRIDGE  ACROSS  THE  SAMA  RIVER,  PROVISIONAL  BOUN- 
DARY BETWEEN   PERU  AND  CHILE 344 

SNOW  PEAKS  ON   THE  BOLIVIAN   BORDER,  TACNA     ...  345 

CALLE   SAN   MARTIN.  NEAR    PARK    ENTRANCE.  TACNA    .   .  346 

VIEW   OF   THE   SUMMIT   OF   THE   SIERRA.  TACNA 347 

EL  CHUPIQUWA.  AN  EXTINCT   VOLCANO  IN   TACNA    ...  348 
A  GOLD  TRAIN   EN   ROUTE    FROM    SANTO  DOMINGO   TO 

TIRAPATA  WITH   BULLION   IN  BARS 350 

SCENE  AT   THE   BORAX   MINES  OF  AREQUIPA 352 

HUANUCO 353 

CAILLOMA    MINES.    ALTITUDE    SEVENTEEN     THOUSAND 

FEET,  DEPARTMENT  OF  AREQUIPA 354 

CARMEN  SHAFT.  CERRO   DE    PASCO   MINES 355 

THE  INCA  MINING    COMPANY'S    OFFICE    AT  SANTO  DO- 
MINGO, BUILT  OF   MAHOGANY 356 

THE  MAIN  STREET  OF  CERRO   DE   PASCO 357 

A  MINING  TOWN  OF  THE   PUNA 358 

.LLAMAS    AND    DONKEYS    AWAITING    CARGO   AT    CERRO 

DE   PASCO 359 

OLD  CHURCH   IN  THE   MINING   TOWN  OF  CAILLOMA    .  360 

MINERS  ARRIVING  AT  AN   INN   IN   THE  SIERRA 361 

SAN  JULIAN  MINE,  CASTROVIRREINA 362 

THE  MINING  TOWN  OF  CASAPALCA.  DEPARTMENT  OF  LIMA  363 
HEADQUARTERS  OF  THE  CERRO  DE  PASCO  MINING  COM- 
PANY AT  CERRO  DE  PASCO 364 

THE  PICTURESQUE  CURVE  OF  SAN  BARTOLOME,  OROYA 

ROUTE 366 

CHOSICA  BRIDGE,  OROYA   ROUTE         367 

CHOSICA,  A  HEALTH    RESORT   ON   THE   OROYA   ROUTE   .  368 
MATUCANA.   EIGHT    THOUSAND    FEET    ABOVE    THE    SEA, 

OROYA  ROUTE 369 

RAILWAY  STATION   IN  THE  SIERRA,  OROYA  ROUTE  ...  370 

CHILCA,  A  MINING  TOWN  ON   THE  OROYA   ROUTE    ...  371 

OROYA 372 


12 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

GALERA  TUNNEL.  HIGHEST  POINT  ON  THE  OROYA  RAIL- 
WAY,  NEARLY   SEVENTEEN  THOUSAND    FEET  ABOVE 

THE  SEA 374 

STONE    ROADWAY    ACROSS    THE    HUALLAGA    RIVER,    IN 

HUANUCO 376 

IRON   BRIDGE  OVER  THE  URUBAMBA  RIVER 377 

ANCIENT    SUSPENSION    BRIDGE    ON    THE    ROAD    FROM 

HUANCAYO  TO  CAt5ETE 378 

RAILWAY  UP  THE  SIERRA  FROM  MOLLENDO  TO  AREQUIPA  379 

MOLLENDO,  TERMINUS  OF  THE  SOUTHERN   RAILWAY.  .  380 

THE  TOWN  OF  MOLLENDO 380 

NEW  RAILWAY  BRIDGE  AND  OLD  COACH  ROAD  BETWEEN 

SICUANI  AND  CUZCO 381 

ANCIENT  VIADUCT  SOTOCCHACA.  AYACUCHO 382 

RAILWAY    ENGINEERS'    CAMP    ON    THE    LINE    BETWEEN 

CHECCACUPE  AND  CUZCO 383 

HIGHWAY   BETWEEN    THE    SIERRA    AND  THE    MONTANA, 

IN   THE   DEPARTMENT   OF  JUNIN 384 

VIEW  OF  THE  VALLEY  BETWEEN  SICUANI  AND  CUZCO, 

SOUTHERN    ROUTE 385 

SOUTHERN   RAILWAY  STATION,  AREQUIPA 386 

LLAMAS  OF   PUNO  EMBARKING  ON  A  BALSA,  LAKE  TITI- 

CACA 388 

A  NATIVE   FAMILY  OF  THE   PUNA 389 

THE   PRINCIPAL   PLAZA  OF   PUNO 390 

SHEEP  ON   THE   PASTURES  OF  ANCASH 39I 

LLAMAS  GRAZING  ON  THE   PUNA 392 

ARCHED  GATEWAY  OF   PUNO 393 

LLAMAS-SHOWING  ONE   RECENTLY  SHEARED 394 

CUZCO,  THE  ANCIENT  CAPITAL  OF  THE   INCAS'  EMPIRE  396 

ANCIENT   ADOBE   ARCHWAY   NEAR   CUZCO 397 

A  FEAST  DAY  CELEBRATION,  SHOWING  THE  UNIVERSITY 

AND  THE  JESUITS'  CHURCH.  CUZCO 398 

INTERIOR  OF  THE   JESUITS'  CHURCH,  CUZCO 399 

THE   PREFECTURE.  CUZCO 400 

CALLE   MARQUEZ.  CUZCO 40I 

THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  CUZCO 402 

VENDERS  IN  THE  ARCADE.  CUZCO 403 

A  RELIGIOUS  PROCESSION   IN  CUZCO 404 

A  RUBBER    ESTABLISHMENT    IN    THE    DEPARTMENT    OF 

LORETO 406 

INDIANS  CARRYING   COCA  TO  MARKET 4°? 

CANOEING  ON  THE   HUALLAGA   RIVER 408 

SHIPYARD    AT    ASTILLERO.    WHERE    THE    INCA    MINING 

COMPANY'S  FIRST  STEAMER  WAS  BUILT 409 

CHICAPLAYA.  IN  THE   HEART  OF   THE   MONTANA 410, 

CHUNCHO  INDIANS  OF  THE   PENEDO  VALLEY 4" 

MASISEA.  THE    FIRST    WIRELESS    TELEGRAPH    STATION 

BUILT  BETWEEN  PUERTO  BERMUDEZ  AND  IQUITOS  .  4'2 


PAGE 
A    TURBULENT    TRIBUTARY    OF    THE    MADRE    DE    DIOS 

RIVER 413 

A  RUBBER  CAMP  IN  THE  MONTAfJA 414 

RAPIDS  ON   THE   TAMBOPATA    RIVER 414 

A  TYPICAL  SCENE  ON  THE  WATERWAYS  OF  THE  UPPER 

AMAZON 415 

SCENE   ON  THE    MADRE    DE   DIOS    RIVER   NEAR  MALDO- 

NADO 416 

HOSPITALITY  IN  THE  RUBBER  COUNTRY 417 

THE  BOOTH   PIER,  IQUITOS 418 

ONE  OF   THE   PRINCIPAL   STREETS  OF   IQUITOS 419 

CALLE  DE  MORONA.  IQUITOS 419 

RIVER  SCENE  NEAR  IQUITOS 420 

A  VIEW  OF  IQUITOS   FROM  THE   RIVER 421 

THE  CUSTOM  HOUSE  AT   IQUITOS 422 

A   ROAD    THROUGH    THE    VIRGIN    FOREST    TO    PUERTO 

BERMUDEZ 424 

AN   ENGINEERS'    CAMP   AT    PUERTO   BERMUDEZ   ON   THE 

PICHIS   RIVER 425 

THE  CONFLUENCE    OF   THE    CHUCHURAL   AND    PALCAZU 

RIVERS 427 

PUERTO  CLEMENT 428 

FORDING   THE  INAMBARI   RIVER 429 

TABATINGA.  ON    THE    FRONTIER    BETWEEN    PERU    AND 

BRAZIL 430 

COLONISTS  OF  THE  SIERRA 431 

IN  THE   HEART  OF  THE  MINING  REGION 433 

A  FOREIGN  COLONY  IN  THE   RUBBER  COUNTRY 434 

A  FERTILE  VALLEY  FOR   COLONIZATION   IN   THE  APURI- 

MAC   REGION 435 

AN  INGENIOUS  PROSPECTOR'S  HOUSE  IN  THE  FOREST  .  436 

THE  VICTORIA  COTTON   MILLS.  LIMA 438 

AN   INDIAN  WEAVING   THE   PONCHO 439 

THE  LIMA   SAVINGS  BANK 442 

THE  BANCO  POPULAR.  LIMA 443 

A  NATIVE   INDUSTRY  OF  THE  COAST   REGION 445 

A  COCAINE   FACTORY  IN   THE  MONZON  VALLEY 446 

THE  ITALIAN  BANK,  LIMA 448 

VESTIBULE  OF  THE  BANK  OF  LONDON  AND  PERU.  LIMA  .  449 

PERUVIAN  COTTON   IN   THE   FACTORY 450 

A  QUICHUA  MOTHER 451 

DESCENDANTS  OF  THE   INCAS'   SUBJECTS 452 

A  TYPE  OF  THE  AMAZON   INDIAN 453 

THE  SCION  OF  A  NOBLE  FAMILY  OF  THE  FOREST  ...  453 
ALCALDES.  WITH  VARAS.  THE  INSIGNIA  OF  THEIR  AU- 
THORITY      454 

AN   INDIAN  WOMAN  OF   LORETO 455 

A  NATIVE   WEAVER.  CHICLAYO 456 

MAP  OF   PERU Facing  456 


INTRODUCTION 


NIVERSALLY  known  as  a  land  of  untold  antiquity,  of  fascinating  romance 
and  marvellous  traditions,  Peru  may  be  considered,  from  the  standpoint 
of  history,  the  most  interesting  of  all  the  South  American  countries.  The 
revelations  of  scientific  research  are  daily  adding  to  the  record  of  its 
glory  in  the  remote  past,  when  the  Incas  and  their  predecessors  ruled 
with  theocratic  sway  over  a  large  part  of  the  continent  and  lived  in 
barbaric  splendor  at  Cuzco,  at  Chan-Chan,  or  at  some  other  of  the  great 
pre-Columbian  capitals,  the  ruins  of  which  to-day  excite  the  admiration  of  archaeologists 
and  the  enthusiasm  of  sightseers.  The  literature  of  the  country,  also,  is  constantly 
revealing  new  phases  of  the  national  life  as  it  existed  in  ancient  times,  and  especially  in 
the  more  recent  period  of  the  Spanish  viceroyalty.  Unlimited  wealth,  easily  acquired 
through  the  labor  of  the  conquered  race  in  the  rich  mines  of  the  sierra  during  colonial 
days,  led  to  the  greatest  extravagance,  though  at  the  same  time  it  provided  ample  means 
for  travel  and  study,  the  benefits  of  which  became  apparent  in  the  fine  culture  of  the 
people — a  culture  which  has  left  its  impress  on  succeeding  generations  of  Peruvians,  giving 
them  the  reputation  they  enjoy  to-day  of  being  essentially  a  gentle  and  polished  nation. 

But,  although  scientific  investigation  and  literary  skill  have  added  much  within  recent 
years  to  what  was  already  more  or  less  generally  known  about  Peru,  and  the  land  of  the 
Incas  and  the  viceroys  has  been  made  a  more  charming  subject  than  ever  before  as  regards 
its  antiquity  and  romance,  yet  the  Peru  of  to-day,  the  real  Peru,  has  received  comparatively 
little  attention  from  writers  and  travellers,  and  is  still  almost  an  unknown  country  to  the 
average  reader.  The  purpose  of  the  present  volume  is  to  present  a  passing  glimpse  of 
the  Old  Peru — the  whole  story  of  which  can  only  be  told  in  many  volumes — and  to  give 
a  faithful  description  of  the  progress  and  development  that  are  evident  in  every  feature  of 
the  national  life  as  reflected  in  the  social,  political,  industrial,  and  commercial  institutions 
of  the  New  Peru.  The  prosperous  future  of  Peru  is  assured  by  the  patriotism,  energy,  and 
enterprise  that  are  apparent  in  every  feature  of  the  national  life,  and  it  is  certain  that  the 
present  century  will  see  the  wealth  and  greatness  of  the  country  increased   beyond 

13 


14  INTRODUCTION 

anything  dreamed  of  in  \he  days  of  the  Incas  and  the  viceroys.  The  spirit  that  won  the 
national  independence  and  successfully  established  republican  institutions  lives  to-day,  and 
is  working  for  the  ascendancy  of  the  noblest  ideals  of  the  race. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  work,  I  found  that  the  knowledge  I  had  previously  gained 
through  close  association  with  the  people  of  Latin  America  during  more  than  fifteen  years' 
journeying  in  these  countries  was  of  the  greatest  advantage.  Travelling  in  Peru  was  more 
like  visiting  among  friends  than  studying  the  manners  and  customs  of  a  foreign  people, 
and  the  uniform  kindness  and  hospitality  everywhere  shown  me  made  my  experience  in 
this  beautiful  land  one  of  constant  pleasure  and  of  enduring  memory.  1  sincerely  appre- 
ciate the  great  assistance  rendered  me  in  securing  information  from  government  sources, 
from  the  public  libraries  and  from  many  kind  friends  in  every  part  of  Peru,  and  I  take  this 
opportunity  of  expressing  my  thanks,  from  my  heart,  it  is  impossible  to  live  in  Peru 
without  learning  to  love  the  country  and  its  people,  and  while  1  have  tried  to  allow  no 
partiality  to  influence  my  judgment  in  writing  this  book,  I  cannot  do  otherwise  than 
present  to  the  reader  what  1  found  most  interesting  in  my  own  study  of  the  Old  and 
the  New  Peru. 

Marie  Robinson  Wright. 
Philadelphia,  September  20,  1908. 


THE  OLD  AND  THE  NEW  PERU 


CHAPTER  I 


ANCIENT   PERU— PRE-INCAIC   MONUMENTS 


nPHE  historian  of  the  Conquerors  who  described  the  newly 
*     discovered  Peru  as  "the  Ophir  of  the  Occident"  gave  it 
'^  ^^SMIJ       a  name  which  modern  research  proves  to  have  been  singularly 
>^S-'    "-s^T^PH        appropriate.     Not  only  in  wealth,  but  in  antiquity,  this  inter- 
esting country  is  comparable  to  the  fabled  land  of  the  East  from 
which  the  emissaries  of  King  Solomon  brought  so  many  luxuries 
to  please  the  taste  of  their  royal  master.     There  are  eminent 
writers  and  students  of  the  records  of  ancient  times  who  are  of 
the  opinion  that  the  famous  Ophir  of  the  Bible  was  no  other  than 
ancient  Peru,  and  that  tlie  Phoenicians — those  intrepid  navigators 
of  past  ages — visited  its  shores  and  were  the  founders  of  its 
earliest  civilization. 

But  speculation  as  to  the  origin  of  the  ancient  Peruvians 
covers  such  an  extensive  field  that  almost  every  writer  on  the 
subject  has  a  distinct  opinion;  and  every  nation  of  the  Orient 
has  been  supposed,  by  one  authority  or  another,  to  have  laid 
the  foundation  of  Peruvian  culture.  The  most  popular  theory 
gives  to  China  the  credit  of  introducing  the  earliest  civilization 
on  the  American  continent;  and  in  support  of  this  belief  many 
parallels  are  drawn  between  the  Mongolians  and  the  primitive 
races  of  the  New  World  in  their  traditions,  customs,  and,  par- 
ticularly, the  similarity  of  their  features.  In  some  parts  of  the 
coast  district  of  Peru,  the  indigenes  do  not  speak  Quichua,  as 
do  the  descendants  of  the  Incas'  people,  but  have  a  language- which  is  said  to  be  easily 
understood  by  the  Chinese ;  and  there  is,  apparently,  a  close  analogy  between  the  ancient 
creeds  of  the  coast  Indians  and  Chinese  worship.  According  to  several  authorities,  the 
traditional  heroes  of  Peruvian  and  Mexican  civilization  were  Buddhist  priests.      In  this 

17 


GIRDLE  FOUND  IN  THE  CEME- 
TERY OF  PACHACAMAC. 


i8 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


connection  it  is  worthy  of  mention  that  some  of  the  huacas  wliich  have  been  taken  from 
ancient  cemeteries  on  the  coast,  bear  a  marked  resemblance  to  the  well-known  idols  of 


V-''-'''--«a»;a«s;«un::.»g_fftr>r:SWgBB&^^ 


^^■? 


SOUTHWESTERN   PART  OF   PACHACAMAC   VIEWED  FROM  THE   NORTH. 

Buddhist  worship.  The  name  hiiaca  is  given  to  all  consecrated  relics  in  these  ancient 
burials,  including  the  corpse  and  its  wrappings,  as  well  as  the  innumerable  articles  of  house- 
hold and  personal  use,  ornaments  and  food,  interred  therewith.  The  custom  of  placing 
maize  and  other  edibles  in  the  grave,  and  (as  has  been  found  in  some  cases)  of  putting  a 
coin  in  the  mouth  of  the  deceased,  affords  proof  that  these  ancients  believed  in  a  future 
life.  Most  of  the  interments  were  made  in  huge  mounds,  called  huacas,  built  of  sun-dried 
bricks,  or,  in  the  earliest  periods,  of  round  balls  of  mud. 

From  whatever  source  Peru  derived  its  earliest  culture,  everything  indicates  that  at 
some  period,  probably  at  various  times  during  the  early  ages,  immigrants  arrived  in  the 
country  from  Asiatic  shores.  The  most  eminent  authorities,  among  them  the  Peruvian 
scholars  Dr.  Pablo  Patron,  Dr.  Larrabure  y  Unanue,  and  others  who  have  made  a  scientific 
study  of  the  antiquity  of  their  country,  agree  in  the  belief  that  there  were  several  early 
immigrations  to  Peru  from  China  and  Japan.  A  few  even  accept  the  theory  that  the  origin 
of  the  advanced  races  who  first  peopled  the  ancient  world  of  the  West  is  to  be  traced  to  a 


AhlCIENT  FEIW—PKE-INCAIC  MONUMENTS 


»9 


lost  "Atlantis"  and  a  submerged  "Lemuria,"  supposed  to  have  been  great  continents  in 
a  past  age,  whose  inhabitants,  rivalling  the  ancient  Egyptians  in  culture,  lived  in  close 
communication  with  America,  and  gave  it  the  basis  of  its  earliest  civilization.  Conservative 
scholars  are  disposed  to  give  little  attention  to  purely  speculative  theories,  and  prefer  to 
seek  the  solution  of  the  problem  by  the  most  practical  methods. 

It  is  to  the  honor  of  Peru  that  the  government,  recognizing  the  importance  of  exploring 
its  great  treasure-store  of  antiquities  in  the  interest  of  modern  knowledge,  is  directing  a 
systematic  effort  to  penetrate  the  veil  of  mystery  which  envelopes  the  remote  past  of  the 
country  and  its  people.  Dr.  Max  Uhle,  an  eminent  authority  on  Peruvian  archaeology,  is 
now  occupied  in  the  work  of  excavating  and  classifying  Peruvian  antiquities  in  accordance 
with  modern  scientific  methods.  The  facts  so  far  accumulated  from  reliable  archaeological 
data  point  to  an  antiquity  of  at  least  three  thousand  years,  and  may  indicate  a  much  more 
remote  period  of  culture. 

Long  ages  before  the  New  World  was  discovered  by  Europeans,  and  centuries 
before  the  liicas  established  their  wonderful  empire,  Peru  was  the  home  of  a  mighty 


ENTRANCE   TO   THE   PRINCIPAL   PALACE  OF   PACHACAMAC. 


race,  or  of  successive  races,  whose  dominion  extended  at  some  time  over  a  great  part 
of  tropical  America.    The  records  of  their  advancement  still   exist  in  the  stupendous 


20 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE14^  PERU 


ruins  of  their  sacred  temples  and  in  the  objects  of  art  and  evidences  of  culture  found 
in  their  burial  mounds. 

Like  the  various  nations  of  the  Orient,  these  ancients  of  tlie  New  World  had  their 
ambitious  struggles  for  supremacy  one  against  another,  their  periods  of  great  prosperity 


'^-^•v-'&S^ 


.jilk^Sa-' 


^^^^^^^ 


THE   EASTERN   STREET   Or    PACHACAMAC. 


and  power, — sometimes  arriving  at  the  height  of  despotic  rule  over  all  contemporaries, — and 
their  time  of  decline  before  the  ascendancy  of  a  more  potent  rival.  The  record  of  changes 
wrought  in  successive  periods,  and  of  influences  resulting  from  communication  between 
the  inhabitants  of  widely  separated  regions,  is  written  in  their  monuments  and  in  the 
huacas  of  their  cemeteries,  and  furnishes  the  key  to  the  chronology  of  prehistoric  Peru, 
possibly  to  all  American  antiquity. 

Interesting  ruins  abound  in  every  part  of  Peru,  from  the  environs  of  the  capital  to  the 
most  remote  districts  of  the  frontier.  Within  a  few  hours'  ride  of  Lima  are  situated 
the  ancient  necropolis  of  Ancon  and  the  temple  of  Pachacamac,  where  recent  excavations 
have  brought  to  light  many  interesting  prehistoric  relics.  In  no  other  land  do  the  same 
conditions  exist  as  in  Peru,  where  the  archseologist  has  advantages  in  the  pursuit  of  his 
investigations  which  the  countries  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Babylonians,  and  Greeks  do 
not  afford.     Here  it  is  possible  to  study,  at  first  hand,  many  of  the  customs  that  prevailed 


/INCIENT  PERU—PRE-INC/IIC  MONUMENTS 


21 


long  before  the  advent  of  the  Spaniards,  as  they  are  still  practised  in  the  sierra,  where  the 
same  feast  days  have  been  observed  from  time  immemorial,  the  ^ame  methods  of  spinning 
and  weaving  are  followed  to-day  as  in  prehistoric  ages,  the  picturesque  and  brilliantly 
colored  costumes  of  their  ancestors  are  yet  in  vogue  among  the  indigenes,  and  even  a  few 
of  the  wonderful  dyes,  which  excel  in  permanence  those  of  the  best  European  markets, 
are  made  to-day  by  these  children  of  an  ancient  race,  as  they  were  by  their  forefathers  in 
centuries  past. 

The  most  ancient  civilization  in  Peru  of  which  traces  have  been  found  up  to  the 
present  time  was  developed  in  the  coast  region,  around  Nasca  and  lea  in  the  southern 
district  and  near  Trujillo  in  the  north;  and  the  traveller  whose  interest  in  antiquities 
induces  him  to  pay  a  visit  to  this  country  can  see  some  of  the  most  remarkable  ruins  on 
the  American  continent  without  the  inconvenience  of  making  a  long  and  fatiguing  overland 
journey,  as  the  ocean  steamers  of  the  South  Pacific  call  at  ports  in  the  immediate  neighbor- 
hood of  extensive  ruins  of  prehistoric  cities.  Along  the  coast  may  also  be  seen  shell 
mounds  and  other  fragments  of  a  primitive  age,  showing  that  in  a  very  remote  period  the 
inhabitants  subsisted  almost  entirely  on  sea  food;  though  nothing  has  been  found  to 
indicate  that  these  people  were  in  any  way  related  to  the  races  that  attained,  at  a  later 
date,  such  a  high  degree  of  culture  as  that  represented  in  the  monuments,  potteries,  and 
particularly  in  the  textiles,  of  Nasca,  Pachacamac,  and  Trujillo.  The  textiles  of  ancient  Peru 
are  marvellous  in  qual- 
ity, design,  and  coloring, 
and  are  the  especial  de- 
light and  admiration  of 
the  archaeologist. 

Pachacamac,  situ- 
ated about  twenty-five 
miles  south  of  Lima,  in 
the  valley  of  Lurin, 
overlooking  the  sea,  is, 
in  some  respects,  the 
most  interesting  prehis- 
toric monument  of  Peru. 
Nearly  all  travellers  who 
visit  Lima  spend  a  day 
among  these  crumbling 
walls  and  burial  mounds. 

The  first  part  of  the  journey  to  Pachacamac  lies  across  the  Rimac  valley,  which  is  itself 
famous  in  ancient  legends  as  the  site  of  a  wonderful  temple  dedicated  to  the  oracle 
"Rimac,"  the  name  signifying  "one  who  speaks."  The  remains  of  this  great  edifice — 
once  almost  as  celebrated  for  splendor  and  riches  as  that  of  Pachacamac — are  still  to  be 


TEKKACbS  OH   THE   SOUTHEAST    FRONT   OF    PACHACAMAC,   WITH    CEMETERY   OF 

SACRIFICED  WOMEN. 


22 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


seen  just  outside  of  Lima.     Between  the  valleys  of  Rimac  and  Lurin,  a  desert  waste  of 
sand  extends,  known  as  the  Tablada  de  Lurin ;  it  is  a  welcome  relief  when  this  part  of  the 


A  VIEW  OF  THE  SUN   TEMPLE   OF   PACHACXmAC,  SHOWING   NICHED  WALLS. 


ride  is  over  and  the  green  meadows  of  Lurin  appear  in  view,  though  even  the  desert  has  its 
unspeakable  charm.  Several  hills  rise  two  or  three  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
desert,  and  among  these  hills  the  ancient  city  of  Pachacamac  was  located.  The  area  within 
the  outer  walls  that  enclose  the  ruins  measures  nearly  three  miles  in  length  by  two  in 
breadth,  the  chief  interest  being  centred  in  the  space  occupied  by  the  walls  of  the  temple 
erected  to  the  god  Pachacamac.  It  was  while  excavating  in  these  ruins  a  few  years  ago 
that  Dr.  Uhle  made  the  discoveries  which  laid  the  foundation  for  a  new  classification  of 
Peruvian  antiquities,  in  accordance  with  the  evidences  of  successive  periods  of  culture. 
Previous  to  that  time,  all  tlie  objects  taken  from  Peruvian  cemeteries  and  placed  on 
exhibition  in  the  museums  of  Europe  and  North  America,  were  arranged  in  a  manner  to 
give  the  impression  that  they  represented  various  phases  of  one  continuous  period  of 
culture.  Carved  monoliths,  mummies,  and  vessels  of  gold,  silver,  and  pottery,  were 
disposed  of  with  no  more  definite  clue  to  their  origin  than  was  afforded  by  a  statement  of 
the  locality  from  which  they  had  been  taken  and  the  circumstances  and  date  of  their 
excavation.  A  scientific  exploration  of  the  ruins  of  Pachacamac  has  revealed  the  fact  that 
its  great  temple  outlasted  several  successive  ages  of  culture,  and  that  its  other  edifices  were 
constructed  at  later  periods,  the  Incas  having  built  a  Temple  of  the  Sun  and  a  convent  for 
the  Virgins  of  the  Sun  close  to  the  ancient  shrine  of  Pachacamac,  whose  name  signifies 


ANCIENT  PERU—PRE-INCAIC  MONUMENTS 


2J 


"The  Creator  of  the  World."  The  temple  of  the  "Creator  God"  has  undergone  many 
changes.  Excavations  show  that  the  original  edifice  was  destroyed  long  centuries  ago, 
wiiether  by  eartliquake  or  in  a  mighty  conflict  with  a  rival  people  is  not  known,  and  that  a 
cemetery  at  its  base  was  buried  in  tlie  debris.  A  larger  temple  was  afterward  erected  on 
the  same  site,  immediately  over  the  earlier  edifice,  the  terraces  of  the  later  structure 
covering  the  debris  under  which  the  older  cemetery  was  loaited.  The  burial  place  of  the 
larger  temple,  as  well  as  that  of  the  original  building,  was  found  to  be  filled  with  graves, 
the  worshippers  of  Pachacamac  having  come  to  this  shrine  as  the  Mohammedans  flocked  to 
Mecca  centuries  later,  feeling  that  they  had  gained  the  greatest  of  all  blessings  if  they  could 
but  be  buried  within  the  sacred  city.  It  is  estimated  that  thirty  thousand  of  the  faithful 
were  interred  in  the  cemetery  of  Pachacamac.  An  examination  of  the  huacas  found  in  the 
various  strata  of  these  ruins  shows  the  influence  of  five  separate  periods  on  the  culture  of 
this  region,  and  has  enabled  the  archaeologist  to  determine  the  antiquity  of  Pachacamac 
relative  to  that  of  other  ancient  ruins,  such  as  those  of  Tiahuanaco  in  Bolivia  and  the  more 
recent  edifices  of  Incaic  origin.  It  is  regarded  as  certain  that  the  oldest  temple  of  Pacha- 
camac represents  an  earlier  period  than  does  Tiahuanaco,  though  the  latter  antedates  by 
many  centuries  the  monuments  of  Inca  civilization.  The  art  displayed  in  the  shape  and 
design  of  some  of  the  vessels  taken  from  tlie  cemetery  of  Pachacamac  bears  a  resem- 
blance, in  the  earlier  period,  to  that  seen  in  the  huacas  of  Tiahuanaco,  and,  in  its  latest 


^.JAJJ-JUJ^' 


RUINS  OF  THE  CONVENT,  PACHACAMAC. 


expression,  to  the  art  of  the  Incaic  civilization;  this  would  seem  to  indicate  that  at  least 
three  successive  cultures  dominated  the  whole  of  ancient  Peru,  with  long  periods  of 


24 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


transition  intervening,  when  tlie  country  was  divided  and  governed  by  numerous  races 
of  more  or  less  advanced  culture. 

Why  did  the  ancient  Peruvians  choose,  as  the  site  of  one  of  their  greatest  temples,  a 
strip  of  arid  plain,  when  a  vast  region  lay  before  them,  presenting  every  variety  of  blessing 

which  a  bountiful  Nature  and  beneficent 
Providence  could  bestow  upon  a  favored 
land?  This  question  is  suggested  not  only 
as  one  contemplates  the  ruins  of  Pachacamac, 
but  also  in  the  presence  of  the  temple  and 
monoliths  of  Tiahuanaco.  Was  it  that  fear 
was  the  directing  impulse,  and  a  desire  to 
propitiate  an  evil  deity  was  stronger  than  the 
inspiration  to  adore  a  beneficent  and  beloved 
creator?  In  a  land  of  snow-capped  moun- 
tains, unfathomable  cafions,  and  varied  cli- 
mate, where  stupendous  evidences  of  an 
omnipotent  power  were  constantly  present 
to  impress  the  imagination  of  a  primitive 
people,  and  the  changes  wrought  by  Nature 
were  sometimes  sudden  and  disastrous,  as 
in  the  case  of  earthquakes  and  tidal  waves, 
it  is  not  strange  that,  as  is  seen  in  India, 
where  similar  conditions  prevailed,  the  dawn- 
ing intelligence  of  a  primitive  race  was  appar- 
ently dominated  by  fear  rather  than  love  in 
the  exercise  of  its  religion.  An  explanation 
of  the  choice  of  locality  for  the  temple  of 
Pachacamac  is*  afforded  by  the  following  legend,  the  origin  of  which  is  said  to  be  very 
ancient.  The  distinguished  author  of  the  archseological  treatise  Pachacamac  relates  the 
story:  "  In  the  beginning  of  the  world  there  was  no  food  for  a  man  and  a  woman  whom 
the  god  Pachacamac  had  created.  The  man  starved,  but  the  woman  survived.  One 
day,  as  she  was  searching  among  the  thorn  bushes  for  roots  with  which  to  stay  her 
hunger,  she  lifted  up  her  eyes  to  the  sun  and  with  tears  and  lamentation  cried :  '  Beloved 
Creator  of  all  things!  Why  hast  thou  brought  me  into  tlie  light  of  this  world  if  I  am 
to  die  of  hunger  and  want  ?  Oh,  that  thou  hadst  not  created  me  out  of  nothing,  or  hadst 
suffered  me  to  die  immediately  on  entering  the  world,  instead  of  leaving  me  alone  in 
it  without  children  to  succeed  me,  poor,  cast  down,  and  sorrowful  I  Why,  O  Sun,  having 
created  us,  why  wilt  thou  let  us  perish  ?  And  if  thou  art  the  Giver  of  Light,  why  art  thou 
so  niggardly  as  to  refuse  me  my  nourishment?  Thou  hast  no  pity  and  heedst  not  the 
sorrow  of  those  whom  thou  hast  created  only  to  their  misery.    Cause  heaven  to  slay  me 


HUACAS  FROM  THE  GRAVES  OF  PACHACAMAC. 


AMCIENT  PERU—PRE-INCAIC  MONUMENTS 


25 


PRE-INCAIC   POTTERY  FROM   PACHACAMAC. 


with  lightning  or  earth  to  swallow  me,  or  give  me  food,  for  thou,  Almighty  One,  hast  made 
mel'  The  sun,  touched  with  pity,  descended  to  her  and  bade  her  give  up  her  fears  and 
hope  for  comfort,  for  she  would  soon  be  delivered  from  the  cause  of  her  trouble.  One 
day,  while  she  was  wearily  searching  for  roots,  she  became  impregnated  with  his  rays  and 
bore  a  son  after  four 
days.  But  Pachacamac, 
who  was  the  son  of  the 
Sun,  was  angry  with  the 
woman  for  liaving  wor- 
shipped his  father  and 
for  having  borne  him  a 
son  in  defiance  of  him- 
self; he  seized  the  new- 
born demigod  and  cut 
him  to  pieces.  In  order, 
however,  that  the  woman 
should  not  suffer  for  lack 
of  food,  he  sowed  the 
dismembered  parts  of  the 
boy,  and  the  harvest  was  a  bountiful  one;  from  the  teeth  grew  corn;  from  the  ribs  and 
bones  sprang  the  yucca  and  other  roots;  from  the  flesh  appeared  vegetables  and  fruits. 
Since  that  time,  men  have  known  no  more  want,  and  they  owe  this  abundance  of  food  to 
Pachacamac.  But  the  mother  mourned  for  her  child  and  appealed  again  to  the  Sun.  Again 
the  Sun  was  moved  to  pity  and  he  commanded  her  to  bring  him  the  umbilical  cord  of  the 
murdered  child;  into  it  he  put  life,  and  gave  her  another  son,  whom  she  called  Wichama, 
who  grew  strong  and  powerful  and,  when  a  young  man,  set  out  to  travel  like  his  father, 
tlie  Sun.  But  as  soon  as  Wichama  left  his  mother,  Pachacamac  slew  her  and  caused  the 
birds  to  devour  her,  all  but  the  hair  and  bones,  which  he  concealed  near  the  shore.  Then 
Pachacamac  created  men  and  women  who  were  to  take  possession  of  the  earth,  and  he  set 
up  Curacas  and  Caciques  to  rule  over  them.  But  when  Wichama,  returning,  found  that  his 
mother  had  been  slain,  he  was  in  a  terrible  rage,  and  commanded  her  bones  to  be  brought 
to  him ;  these  he  joined  together  and  he  brought  her  back  to  life.  The  two  then  planned 
revenge  against  Pacliacamac,  who,  rather  than  struggle  with  liis  second  brother,  threw 
himself  into  the  sea  from  the  spot  where  his  temple  now  stands.  When  Wichama  saw  his 
enemy  escape  from  him,  he  was  in  a  fury  of  rage  and  with  the  breath  of  his  nostrils  he  set 
fire  to  the  air  and  scorched  the  fields.  He  accused  the  inhabitants  of  having  aided  Pacha- 
camac and  besouglit  his  father  to  turn  them  to  stone.  His  request  was  granted,  but  both 
the  Sun  and  Wichama  repented  of  this  terrible  deed,  and  caused  the  petrified  Curacas  and 
Caciques  to  be  set  up  and  worshipped,  some  on  the  shore  and  others  in  the  sea,  where 
they  still  stand  as  rocks  and  reefs."    The  same  authority  interprets  the  story  as  a  myth  of 


26 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEkT  PERU 


the  Seasons,  describing  the  phenomena  of  nature,  as  annually  repeated  in  the  climate  of  the 
coast  land.  The  description  of  climatic  conditions  shows,  as  the  most  characteristic  feature, 
the  annually  repeated  struggle  of  the  vegetation  of  the  valley,  which  depends  entirely  on 
artificial  irrigation,  against  the  scorching  heat  of  the  sun.  The  former  is  personified  in  the 
god  Pachacamac.  The  Sun,  with  whom  Pachacamac  carries  on  his  struggle,  represents 
the  solar  year;  the  first  solar  son,  whom  Pachacamac  kills,  represents  possibly  the  spring 
sun  before  the  rising  of  the  highland  rivers,  when  the  season  of  fruitfulness  begins;  the 
scattering  of  the  teeth  and  bones  of  the  murdered  son  produces  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
The  woman  who  bears  a  son  to  the  Sun  god  is  the  year;  from  a  needy  but  toil-free  life  in 
the  wilderness,  Pachacamac  leads  her  to  a  life  of  care  and  toil,  such  as  cultivation  of  the  fields 
requires;  still  grieving  over  the  death  of  her  first  son,  she  is  given  Wichama,  the  autumn  and 
winter  Sun,  with  whom  Pachacamac  enters  into  a  struggle.  The  woman  grows  old  as  does 
the  year;  Pachacamac  kills  her — as  the  year  ends  with  the  harvest.  After  the  ingathering 
of  the  harvest  and  the  autumnal  decrease  of  the  rivers,  Pachacamac  is  unable  to  resume  the 


CURIOUS  SYMBOLS  OF   PACHACAMAC  WORSHIP. 


Struggle ;  his  flight  into  the  ocean  to  escape  Wichama  corresponds  to  the  protecting  cover  of 
dense  fogs  which  every  winter  overspread  the  parched  fields.  The  Sun  hero  wreaks  his 
vengeance  on  the  fields  of  the  fog  region  which  even  in  winter  are  exposed  to  the  arid  sun. 


ANCIENT  PERU—PRE-INCAIC  MONUMENTS  27 

Mythical  legends  are  related  of  three  principal  deities  that  were  worshipped  by  the 
ancient  Peruvians.  Of  these,  an  important  place  is  given  to  the  great  god  Con,  who, 
according  to  tradition,  was  invisible,  possessing  "no  bones,  nerves,  or  extremities,"  and 


FACADE  OF  THE   PALACE  OF  CHAN-CHAN.  NEAR  TRUJILLO. 


who  "travelled  with  the  swiftness  of  spirits."  He  levelled  the  sierras,  filled  up  the  cafions, 
and  covered  the  earth  with  fruits  and  everything  necessary  for  tiie  sustenance  of  men  and 
women,  so  that  they  might  enjoy  abundance.  But,  unappreciative  of  their  blessings,  the 
people  of  the  coast  gave  themselves  up  to  all  nrianner  of  evil  and  forgot  their  benefactor. 
Con,  indignant  over  their  corruption,  transformed  ^  i\\\  into  black  cats  and  other  ill-favored 
animals,  denied  them  the  blessing  of  rain,  and  changed  their  happy  afid  fruitful  land  into  an 
arid  desert.  According  to  the  same  legend,  Pachacamac,  restored  fertility  to  the  earth 
and  created  a  new  race  of  men,  the  arx^estors  of  the  present  Indians.  Besides  Con  and 
Pachacamac,  there  was  also  the  mighfy  Viracocha,  the  god  of  the  deluge,  who  rose  from 
the  waters  of  Lake  Titicaca,  made  tb^  heavens  and  the  earth,  and,  before  creating  the  light 
of  day,  peopled  the  earth  with  its^st  inhabitants.  These  were  afterward  changed  to  stone 
because  of  their  disobedience ;  t^t  in  order  that  the  darkness  should  disappear  and  Peru  be 
peopled,  Viracocha  appeared  ag^in — this  time  with  followers — and  created  the  sun  and  the 
stars  and  formed  models  of  the  future  Peruvians;  the  images,  representing  men,  women,  and 
children,  he  distributed  throughout  the  different  provinces.     He  then  sent  his  followers  to 


28 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE^V  PERU 


the  different  regions  to  animate  these  models,  which  was  done  by  the  invocation,  "Arise 
and  people  this  earth,  which  is  barren  and  solitary !  Thus  commands  Viracocha,  who  is  the 
creator  of  the  world  1 "  hi  response  to  these  words  the  images  became  possessed  of  life 
and  appeared  on  the  mountains,  in  the  valleys,  beside  the  rivers,  everywhere.  A  few 
beings,  created  to  fulfil  a  special  destiny,  were  animated  by  Viracocha  himself,  and  as  soon 
as  they  recognized  their  creator,  they  erected  a  temple  of  worship  in  his  honor.  The 
Spanish  historian,  Sebastian  Lorente,  who  relates  the  legends  of  Con,  Pachacamac,  and 
Viracocha  in  his  interesting  and  valuable  work  on  Peru,  impressed  by  the  evident  relation 
existing  between  the  three  great  deities,  infers  that  in  ancient  Peru  there  were  three  principal 
centres  of  population  and  culture, — the  coast,  the  sierra,  and  the  Titicaca  plateau.  These 
centres  did  not  arrive  at  the  height  of  their  power  contemporaneously,  nor  were  they 
necessarily  related  to  one  another,  though  the  influence  of  each  one  is  seen,  in  some  degree, 


CARVED  TERRACES  OF  THE   PALACE  OF  CHAN-CHAN. 


in  the  development  of  all  three.    A  distinct,  and  undoubtedly  a  very  ancient,  architecture 
prevails  in  the  temples,  palaces,  and  pyramids  of  the  coast,  unidentified  either  with  that  of 


ANCIENT  PERU—PRE-INC/f/C  MONUMENTS 


29 


the  interior  valleys  or  of  the  high  plateau.    The  magnificent  ruins  of  Chimu  culture,  as  seen 
in  the  great  walls  of  Chan-Chan,  which  measure  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  height,  and 


ANIMAL  CARVINGS  ON   THE   WALLS  OF  CHAN-CHAN. 


show  wonderful  designs  and  stucco  work  on  their  surface,  as  well  as  the  monuments  of  an 
earlier  people,  as  seen  at  Huaca  del  Sol,  near  Moche,  and  the  temple  Pachacamac,  are  of  a 
different  character  from  the  edifices  of  Huanuco  Viejo  in  the  sierra,  of  Sacsahuaman  at 
Cuzco,  and  of  the  pillars  and  round  tower  (Pelasgian  style)  in  Puno;  while  these  latter 
ruins  bear  little  relation  in  construction  to  the  cyclopean  edifices  of  Tiahuanaco,  in  Bolivia, 
the  centre  of  what  is  sometimes  called  the  Aymara  culture. 

Aside  from  their  scientific  importance,  the  antiquities  of  Peru  are  interesting  to  travellers 
because  they  have  many  features  that  appeal  to  one's  imagination  and  love  of  mystery. 
They  lie  out  of  the  beaten  track  of  the  sightseer,  who  journeys  annually,  guide-book  in 
hand,  to  gaze  on  the  ruins  of  their  Egyptian  and  Pelasgian  contemporaries  in  the  Old 
World.  But  they  possess  the  greater  fascination  of  the  unsolved  problem,  made  doubly 
attractive  by  apparently  innumerable  "clues,"  which  stimulate  the  imagination  and  tempt 
one  to  construct  independent  theories  as  to  their  origin  and  antiquity.  Karnak  and  the 
Pyramids  may  be  no  more  ancient  than  Nasca:  certainly  the  Sphinx  is  not  nearly  so  great 
an  enigma  as  are  the  huacas  of  Trujillo  and  Ancon  cemeteries;  and  there  is  nothing  in 


30 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEI4^  PERU 


Oriental  antiquities  tliat  quite  resembles  the  mummies  taken  out  of  one  of  these  mysterious 
burial  mounds. 

The  method  of  preparing  the  ancient  Peruvian  corpse  for  burial  was  unique,  though  it 
cannot  be  considered  artistic,  as,  at  first  sight,  the  huaca  looks  like  a  large  sack  well  filled 
and  bound  around  with  a  network  of  ropes.  The  process  of  unwrapping,  which  is  a  long 
one,  reveals  the  corpse  in  a  sitting  posture,  with  the  arms  clasping  the  knees  and  the  head 
bent  over.  Sometimes  the  swathings  are  of  finely  woven  vicuna  cloth,  and  ornaments  of 
gold  and  silver  are  hung  on  the  corpse,  beautiful  and  costly  vases  and  various  other  articles 
of  value  being  placed  beside  it.  From  a  study  of  these  articles  it  has  been  possible  to  learn, 
to  some  extent,  what  the  mode  of  life  was  among  these  ancient  people,  and  many  of  the 
huacas  have  furnished  data  of  the  greatest  importance.  Fine  textiles,  woven  in  curious 
designs,  are  found  in  most  of  the  cemeteries;  but  in  those  of  greatest  antiquity  no  textiles 
appear,  and  this  fact  affords  a  clue  to  their  great  age  also,  as  buried  textiles  have  been  found 
to  outlast  periods  of  fifteen  hundred  years.  The  nitrous  nature  of  the  soil  in  which  these 
burials  have  taken  place  accounts  for  the  wonderful  preservation  of  the  mummies,  which 
are  really  desiccated  corpses.  The  burial  of  the  poor  was  a  simple  ceremony  and  in  some 
cases  consisted  merely  in  depositing  the  corpse  in  a  grave  in  the  sand ;  though,  always,  the 


^m%M 


fKjf 


'Oii^f 


RUINS  OF  CHAN-CHAN. 


treasures  of  the  departed  were  placed  beside  them,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  tools, 
household  utensils,  and  articles  of  personal  adornment  scattered  over  the  arid  fields.    The 


AhlCIENT  PERU-PKE-INCAIC  MONUMENTS 


5« 


great  plain  of  Chimu,  near  Trujillo,  which  covers  a  territory  twelve  miles  long  by  six  miles 
broad  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Moche  River,  and  which  was  so  rich  in  buried  treasure 
when  the  Spaniards  first  began 
to  plunder  its  temple,  palaces,  and 
burial  ground,  that  tiie  king's  fiftii 
of  the  gold  taken  out  amounted, 
in  i5'76,  to  ten  thousand  ounces, 
is  literally  strewn  with  human 
skulls,  pieces  of  pottery,  and 
other  huacas.  The  cemetery  of 
Ancon  has  apparently  inexhausti- 
ble treasures,  and  excursion  par- 
ties seldom  return  to  Lima  after 
a  visit  to  its  graves  without 
bringing  trophies  of  their  outing 
in  the  form  of  prehistoric  relics. 
The  contemplation  of  the 
ancient  ruins  of  Peru  stirs  the 
imagination  and  brings  before 
the  mental  vision  pictures  of 
these  people  of  a  forgotten  past, 
with  many  fanciful  ideas  of  their 
appearance  and  their  origin,  of 
the  lives  they  led,  the  religion 
they  practised,  and  the  predomi- 
nating social  features  of  their 
civilization.  Were  they  "  a  white 
and  bearded  race  "  as  some  of  the 
legends  tell  ?  Or  did  the  natives 
emerge    out   of    barbarism    and 

advance  in  culture,  at  first,  unaided  by  outside  influences  ?  Were  the  conditions  in  ancient 
Peru  as  favorable  for  the  evolution  of  human  culture  as  those  of  ancient  India  and  Egypt? 
One  would  like  to  know,  in  reference  to  the  ancient  edifices,  whose  crumbling  ruins  are  still 
wonderful  after  the  lapse  of  ages,  who  built  them,  and  what  the  elaborate  picture  writings 
on  their  walls  mean  to  tell  us.  It  is  said  that  the  pre-Incaic  people  used  hieroglyphics,  but 
that  the  knowledge  of  this  art  was  lost  or  prohibited  by  the  Incas.  Their  civilization  also 
gives  evidence,  in  the  ornamented  pottery,  the  carvings  of  intricate  design,  and  the  fine 
workmanship  of  their  gold  and  silver  vessels,  that  its  art  surpassed,  in  technique  and 
imagination,  the  productions  of  later  prehistoric  periods.  In  the  earliest  ages  two  closely 
related  civilizations  existed  in  the  coast  region  of  Peru,  one  of  them  centred  around  Trujillo 


MORTUARY  CLOTH   WITH   SYMBOLIC   EMBLEMS. 


32 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEH^  PERU 


and  the  other  in  the  vicinity  of  Nasca  and  lea,  and,  fine  as  they  were,  there  is  nothing 
similar  to  them  in  later  cultures.  The  southern  form  is  especially  notable  for  the  perfection 
of  shape  and  decoration  of  its  pottery,  the  freedom  and  breadth  of  its  style;  while  the 
northern  form  is  more  distinguished  by  the  harmony  and  greatness  of  its  development. 
Gold,  silver,  and  copper  abounded  and  were  wrought  into  manifold  shapes ;  gold  was  cast 
and  chased,  soldered  with  copper  and  silver,  or  used  as  plating  over  copper  and  inlaid  with 
turquoises ;  mosaic  was  also  known.  This  culture  was  followed  by  that  of  the  Tiahuanaco, 
which  in  the  course  of  centuries  declined  and  was  forgotten,  until  the  appearance  of  the 
Incas,  who  became  the  heirs  of  all  the  cultures  which  had  preceded  theirs  in  Peru, 


FOUND  IN  THE   BURIAL   PLACE  OF   PACHACAMAC. 


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O 

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O 


CHAPTER  II 


THE   RISE   OF   THE   CUZCO   DYNASTY 


T^HROUGHOUT  the  annals  of  history 
■^  there  is  found  no  parallel  to  the  extraor- 
dinary character  and  development  of  the 
great  empire  of  the  Incas,  whose  glory  and 
splendor  attained  such  supremacy  and  shone 
with  such  lustre,  under  a  benign  though 
despotic  sovereignty,  as  to  eclipse  all  earlier 
culture  in  pre-Columbian  America.  What- 
ever may  have  been  the  heritage  which  the 
Children  of  the  Sun  received  from  their 
predecessors,  they  carefully  avoided  giving 
it  any  importance  in  their  records.  The  Inca 
Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  who  wrote  the  history 
of  his  people  more  than  half  a  century  after 
the  Conquest,  says  that  this  rich  and  mighty 
monarchy  was  founded  in  the  midst  of  bar-- 
barism  and  degradation  and  developed  in  all 
its  magnificence  through  the  divine  direction 
of  noble  princes,  who  derived  their  power. 
from  heaven  alone,  and  who  were  both  the 
spiritual  and  the  temporal  rulers  of  the  people,  by  right  of  their  celestial  origin. 

A  romantic  charm  envelopes  the  fame  of  the  incas  and  their  brilliant  court,  their 
spectacular  religion  with  its  temples  prodigally  ornamented  with  gold  and  silver,  and,  above 
all,  their  own  royal  personality,  so  impressive  in  the  dignity  and  sanctity  of  heaven-born 
greatness.  One  must  even  confess  to  resentment  when  meddlesome  scholars  seek  to  take 
away  any  of  the  prestige  of  these  picturesque  Conquerors  of  the  Andes  in  favor  of  an 
eariier  race,  or  of  successive  races,  whose  identity  is  lost  in  a  mist  of  fable  and  legend,  and 

35 


AN    INCAIC   DOORWAY. 


36  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

who  can  present  no  such  fascinating  pageant  to  our  imagination  as  do  the  heroes  of  Cuzco, 
with  their  mythical  genealogy,  the  fame  of  their  refined  theocracy,  and  the  prowess  of  their 
splendid  legions.  After  all,  it  has  not  yet  been  proved  that  the  lords  of  Cuzco  were  not  of 
the  same  race  and  origin  as  the  authors  of  the  most  ancient  civilization  of  Peru,  and,  even, 
of  all  America.  Scholars  who  have  studied  the  language,  customs,  and  monuments  of  the 
ancient  Peruvians,  find  what  is  evidently  a  parent  influence  making  itself  felt  through  all 
the  changing  conditions  of  successive  periods,  and  in  spite  of  seemingly  foreign  and 
unrelated  cultures  that  have  appeared  in  various  localities  during  the  course  of  the  ages. 
The  two  languages  which  are  most  generally  spoken  by  the  Indians  throughout  the  territory 
formedy  included  in  the  Incas'  dominion — the  Aymara  and  the  Quichua — are  apparently 
derived  from  a  common  stock.  May  it  not  be  true  that  the  people  who  spoke  these 
languages,  and  to  whom  are  credited  the  monuments  of  Tiahuanaco  and  Cuzco,  were  the 
heirs  of  a  common  ancestry,  and  that  their  progenitors  were  the  authors  of  the  earliest 
culture  in  Peru? 

Out  of  the  confusion  of  many  legends  that  are  related  by  the  Indians  to  account  for 
the  origin  of  the  Incas'  empire,  the  one  which  is  best  known,  and  most  generally  approved, 
because  of  the  poetic  beauty  of  the  conception,  tells  us  that  the  Sun,  the  creator  of  mankind, 
through  compassion  for  the  deplorable  degradation  of  the  wodd,  sent  two  of  his  children, 
Manco-Ccapac  and  (Mama  Ocllo,^  to  regenerate  humanity  and  to  teach  the  arts  of  civilized 
life.  The  celestial  pair,  who  were  not  only  brother  and  sister,  but  husband  and  wife, 
appeared  first  on  an  island  in  the  midst  of  Lake  Titicaca,  and  from  this  point  they  set  forth 
on  their  benevolent  mission.  Lake  Titicaca  is  supposed  to  have  been  chosen  as  the  place 
of  departure  because,  since  it  was  the  first  to  receive  the  rays  of  the  sun  when  Viracocha 
dispersed  the  darkness,  it  was  fitting  that  tlie  first  messengers  of  the  light  of  civilization 
should  also  appear  on  its  sacred  island.  They  carried  a  rod  of  gold  about  two  feet  long  and 
of  the  thickness  of  a  man's  finger,  having  received  from  their  father,  the  Sun,  instructions  to 
establish  themselves  in  the  place  where  the  rod  should  sink  into  the  earth  at  the  first  stroke. 
In  the  cerro  of  Huanacaure  the  golden  rod  was  buried  out  of  sight  as  soon  as  it  struck  the 
soil,  and  here  was  founded  the  great  empire  of  the  Incas, — "Inca"  meaning  "lord," — which 
was  to  flourish  and  extend  its  dominion  from  the  northern  border  of  the  present  republic  of 
Ecuador  to  the  south  of  Chile  and  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  eastern  valleys  of  the 
Andean  chain,  covering  a  territory  of  more  than  a  million  square  miles,  and  giving  protection 
to  at  least  ten  million  faithful  and  industrious  subjects,  obedient  to  the  Inca's  laws. 

According  to  a  tradition,  which  Sebastian  Lorente  gives  us,  Manco-Ccapac  was  the  son 
of  a  ciiraca,  or  chief,  of  Pacaritambo,  in  the  Apurimac  valley,  a  youth  so  beautiful  that  he 
was  called  "the  son  of  the  Sun."  He  was  left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  and  the  fortune- 
tellers easily  persuaded  him  that  he  was  of  celestial  origin.  At  eighteen  or  twenty  years  of 
age  the  boy  entered  on  his  great  mission.  A  humble  orator,  he  erected  an  altar  to  Huana- 
caure, the  principal  idol  of  his  forefathers,  which  the  Incas  never  after  failed  to  invoke  in 
time  of  danger.    With  a  few  followers  he  established  his  dominion,  attracting  some  by 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  CUZCO  DYNASTY 


il 


promises  and  forcing  others  by  threats,  while  he  fascinated  the  masses  by  his  magnificent 
personality.     He  wore  a  tunic  embroidered  in  silver,  on  his  breast  glistened  a  disk  of  gold, 


TERRACE  OF  THE   INCA'S   PALACE,  OLLANTAYTAMBO. 


jewels  adorned  his  arms,  and  gorgeous  plumes  formed  his  headdress.  By  various  means 
he  succeeded  in  gaining  command  over  his  compatriots,  who  served  his  ambition  and 
obeyed  his  laws.  There  is  something  reasonable  and  matter-of-fact  about  this  tradition 
which  inclines  one  to  think  that  it  may  have  foundation  in  truth.  It  is  seen  that  Manco- 
Ccapac  worshipped  the  principal  idol  of  his  forefathers,  which  shows  that  his  plan  was 
to  incorporate  in  the  new  religion  the  most  venerated  beliefs  of  the  people,  and  not  to 
antagonize  them  by  an  iconoclastic  policy;  he  set  up  his  government  in  Cuzco,  where  the 
inhabitants  were  by  nature  docile  and  easily  disciplined ;  he  appeared  at  the  psychological 
moment  when  Peru  was  ready  for  a  new  cult  and  a  new  system  of  laws ;  and,  also,  he 
was  dowered  with  extraordinary  gifts,  looked  like  a  king,  and  was  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  character  of  his  people.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Manco-Ccapac  was  a  native 
of  the  country,  whether  he  came  originally  from  the  Titicaca  plateau  and  was  of  Aymara 
descent,  as  some  authorities  claim,  or  had  his  birthplace  in  the  valley  of  the  Apurimac  and 
spoke  the  language  of  the  Quichuas,  the  people  "of  the  green  valleys"  as  the  word 


38 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEM^  PERU 


Qiiichua  signifies.  It  is  said  that  the  Incas  themselves  spoke  neither  Aymara  nor  Quichua, 
but  a  language  unknown  to  the  people  and  not  allowed  to  be  spoken  by  anyone  but  royalty. 
The  dynasty  founded  by  Manco-Ccapac  at  Cuzco  is  generally  believed  to  have  dated 
from,  the  twelfth  century.  All  the  genealogies  furnished  by  historians  are  more  or  less 
incomplete,  limiting  to  thirteen  or  fourteen,  at  most,  the  number  of  monarchs  who  reigned 
during  that  long  period  of  four  hundred  years.  The  list  of  Incas  given  by  Garcilaso  de  la 
Vega,  and  regarded  as  the  most  reliable,  contains  the  names  of  thirteen  Princes  of  the  Sun. 
Most  of  the  authorities  of  importance  name  Manco-Ccapac  as  the  founder  of  the  Empire  of 
the  Incas,  with  Mama  Ocllo  as  Coya,  or  Empress;  though  opinion  is  greatly  divided  as  to 
their  origin  and  the  date  of  their  imperial  accession.  One  well-known  historian  of  the 
Conquest,  Montesinos,  places  the  period  of  the  first  appearance  of  this  royal  line  in  the  sixth 
century  after  the  Deluge.  It  is  related  that,  during  that  remote  age,  there  arrived  in  Cuzco 
a  family  of  four  couples  who  civilized  this  region.  The  eldest  of  the  four  brothers,  having 
gained  possession  of  the  territory,  divided  it  into  four  portions,  or  suyos,  from  which  it  took 
the  name  of  Tahuantinsuyo,  "  the  kingdom  of  the  four  regions."  The  territory  to  the  south 
was  called  Collasuyo,  to  the  west  Cuntisuyo,  to  the  north  Chinchasuyo,  and  to  the  east 
Antisuyo.  The  youngest  brother  afterward  secured  command  of  the  kingdom  and  became 
the  first  of  a  line  of  princes  who  governed  Peru  up  to  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Conquest. 
The  most  interesting  feature  of  this  tradition  is  the  division  of  tlie  rule  of  these  monarchs 
into  three  great  dynasties,  of  which  the  first  was  that  of  the  Pirhuas  (from  pyru,  meaning 


WALL  OF  THE   PALACE  OF  ONE  OF  THE  INCAS.  CUZCO. 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  CUZCO  DYNASTY 


J9 


RUINS  OF   THE   PALACE   OF   MANCO-CCAPAC,  CUZCO. 


"fire,"  apparently  indicating  that  they  were  fire-worshippers),  the  second,  that  of  the 
Amauttas,  or  wise  men,  and  the  third  the  Inca  dynasty.  The  first  of  the  Pirhuas  founded 
the  city  of  Cuzco  in  the  name  of  Viracocha,  "the  Supreme  Being,"  and  one  of  his  successors 
built  a  great  temple  in  Cuzco  (perhaps  Sacsahuaman,  which  is  believed  to  antedate  the  Inca 
period),  while  another  ruler  of  the  same  royal  line  is  credited  with  having  reformed  the 
calendar,  built  public  roads  and  established  severe  rules  in  religion.  One  of  these  kings, 
the  record  says,  "  died  while  repressing  an  invasion  of  depraved  people  from  the  plains." 
The  Amauttas  made  many  wise  laws,  reformed  the  calendar  and  the  religion  of  Viracocha, 
organized  the  military  forces  of  the  kingdom  and  repelled  the  Chimus  of  the  plains.  During 
the  reign  of  the  last  of  the  Amauttas,  we  are  told,  "was  fulfilled  the  fourth  sun  of  the 
Amauttas,  and  there  took  place  a  great  invasion  of  ferocious  tribes  who  attacked  the  king- 
dom in  different  parts,  obliging  the  sovereigns  of  Cuzco  to  flee  to  the  grottos  of  Tamputoko 
for  four  hundred  years,  during  which  they  lost  their  literature  and  a  great  part  of  the 
Amautta  culture;  the  advent  of  the  Incaic  dynasty  restored  the  power  of  the  royal  line,  and 
made  Cuzco  again  the  centre  of  a  great  and  beneficent  civilization."  In  the  light  of  modern 
research,  which  is  continually  causing  a  revision  of  former  ideas  regarding  the  origin  and 
antiquity  of  the  Peruvian  empire,  the  story  of  the  three  dynasties  appears  to  be  more  than 
"  the  mere  fable  "  which  it  has  been  designated  by  some  modern  writers  on  the  subject. 
It  particularly  appeals  to  one  as  a  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  Incas'  origin,  since  every 


40  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

feature  of  Incaic  civilization  proves  it  to  be  of  native  character,  even  though  the  predecessors 
of  the  "third  dynasty"  may  have  arrived  from  foreign  shores. 

Manco-Ccapac,  or,  as  his  name  would  be  written  in  English,  Manco  the  Great,  occupies 
a  position  among  the  heroes  of  the  world's  history  not  inferior  to  the  exalted  pedestal  on 
which  we  have  placed  the  founders  of  empires  in  the  Old  World.  He  possessed  the  same 
rare  gifts  of  bold  judgment  and  fearless  initiative  which  belonged  to  Alexander  the  Great,  to 
Charlemagne,  and  to  other  sovereigns  who  have  been  "  Great "  because  they  have  known 
both  the  strength  and  the  weakness  of  their  people,  and  by  conciliating  the  one  and  domi- 
nating the  other,  have  made  themselves  masters  and  leaders  of  mankind.  Had  Manco- 
Ccapac  not  thoroughly  understood  the  conditions  existing  at  the  time  when  he  entered  on 
his  mission,  and  had  he  not  possessed  judgment,  tact,  and  the  dominant  qualities  of 
leadership  to  enable  him  to  win  a  host  of  followers,  even  his  upright  character  and  his 
humanitarian  purpose  would  not  have  proved  sufficient  to  ensure  the  wonderful  success 
which  he  achieved  in  founding  an  empire  more  extensive  than  ancient  Rome,  and  as  rich 
as  the  fabled  monarchies  of  the  Orient.  Throughout  the  Inca's  realm  the  principles  of 
honesty,  industry,  and  justice  were  inculcated  in  every  subject  from  his  cradle,  the  moral 
duties  of  a  good  Peruvian  being  embodied  in  the  Quichua  motto  of  the  nation :  Ama  sua, 
jAma  aqquella,  Ama  lluLi,  which  translated  literally  means,  "  Not  a  thief,  Not  idle,  Not  a 
/  cheat."  It  is  a  form  of  salutation  among  the  Indians  of  Cuzco  to  this  day,  the  response 
being  Ccampas  Ginallattac !  "The  same  to  you!" 

/  The  record  of  historical  events,  as  they  occurred  throughout  the  long  reign  of  the  Inca 
[dynasty,  was  preserved  only  by  a  system  of  quipiis,  or  knotted  cords,  the  art  of  writing 
being  unknown  to  the  Incas,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  prohibited  by  law.  Only 
the  Qjiipucamayos,  the  authorized  guardians  of  the  quipus,  were  able  to  decipher  them. 
This  career  was  considered  one  of  great  honor,  and  instruction  therein  was  given  in  all  the 
provinces,  under  tlie  direction  of  the  Amauttas,  the  Savants  of  the  empire.  The  chief 
archives  of  the  state  were  preserved  in  Cuzco,  where  an  immense  collection  of  quipus  was 
found  by  the  invading  Spaniards,  who  destroyed  the  greater  part  of  them,  without  having 
them  interpreted.  As  a  consequence,  the  information  secured  by  the  historians  of  the 
Conquest  and  by  writers  of  later  date,  relative  to  the  genealogy  and  history  of  the  Incas  is 
necessarily  incomplete  and,  no  doubt,  inaccurate ;  though  the  descriptions  of  the  appearance, 
laws,  customs,  and  national  development  of  the  people  of  Tahuantinsuyo  may  be  considered 
as  generally  faithful  and  reliable. 

According  to  the  genealogy  given  by  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  the  first  Inca,  Manco-Ccapac, 
was  succeeded  by  Sinchi  Rocca,  a  peaceful  and  prudent  ruler,  who  is  said  to  have  taken  the 
first  census  of  his  kingdom,  and  is  credited  by  some  authorities  with  having  made  the  divi- 
sion of  the  empire  into  the  four  regions  previously  named ;  though,  according  to  Cieza  de 
Leon,  one  of  the  most  reliable  authors,  these  names  were  applied  to  four  great  highways 
which  extended  from  Cuzco  to  the  extreme  limits  of  the  empire,  northward,  eastward, 
southward,  and  westward.     In  any  case,  the  Incas  built  broad  and  level  roads,  from  six  to 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  CUZCO  DYNASTY 


41 


eight  feet  wide,  and  in  the 
mountain  regions,  where  they 
skirted  the  steep  slopes  of  the 
Andean  range,  they  were  pre- 
vented from  wearing  away  by 
the  construction  of  stone  em- 
bankments; on  tiie  plains,  tlie 
highway  was  indicated,  as  in 
many  countries  at  the  present 
day,  by  guide  posts  at  intervals 
along  its  course.  Also,  tambos, 
or  inns,  were  built  at  the  dis- 
tance of  a  day's  journey  apart, 
and  here  the  traveller  could 
always  find  shelter  for  the 
night.  The  third  Inca,  Lloque 
Yupanqui,  conquered  the  Ca- 
nas,  a  powerful  people  of  Aya- 
viri  and  Pucara,  after  a  struggle 
which  depopulated  their  settle- 
ments, and  forced  the  emperor 
to  introduce  mitimaes,  or  colo- 
nists, to  replace  them.  He  also 
subjugated  the  Collas  of  the 
present  department  of  Puno. 

It  was  during  the  reign  of 
the  fourth  Inca,  Maita-Ccapac, 

that  the  power  and  genius  of  the  imperial  monarchs  began  to  extend  its  influence  as  never 
before,  and  greater  pomp  and  magnificence  than  had  previously  been  known  attended  the 
coronation  and  other  ceremonials  honored  by  the  sacred  and  royal  presence  of  .the  Inca. 

Following  the  course  of  training  required  of  every  heir  to  the  Inca  throne,  Maita-Ccapac 
had,  when  a  youth,  passed  through  the  Hiiaracu,  a  ceremonial  of  the  greatest  importance, 
and  one  in  which  all  the  young  Inca  nobles  of  his  own  age — the  title  of  Inca  being  borne 
by  every  descendant  of  Manco-Ccapac  through  the  male  line — participated,  after  having  been 
trained  in  the  same  military  exercises  as  the  royal  prince.  A  description  of  the  Huaracu  is 
interesting  as  showing  that  these  people  had  an  institution  not  unlike  that  of  medieval 
chivalry  in  Europe :  From  his  earliest  years,  the  hereditary  prince  was  given  into  the  care 
of  the  Amauttas,  to  be  taught  science  and  religion,  especially  the  latter,  as  the  Inca 
was  the  highest  spiritual  authority  on  earth ;  great  attention  was  also  paid  to  the  military 
training,  as  it  was  desirable  that,  not  only  in  wisdom  but  in  military  skill,  the  prince 


NICHK    IN    THt    lA(,ADk    Oh     I  hi;    i'Al.Al^i;    Ul-    MANl,u  l_<_AI'AC. 


42  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE^  PERU 

should  excel  all  contemporaries.  At  sixteen  years  of  age,  the  young  heir,  Maita-Ccapac,  and 
his  companions,  following  the  sacred  custom  of  their  race,  were  submitted  to  a  public  test, 
supervised  and  directed  by  elderly  and  distinguished  Inca  nobles,  which  included  trials 
of  ability  in  athletics  such  as  wrestling,  jumping,  running,  besides  sham  battles,  which 
were  held  as  a  trial  of  valor,  and  were  so  severe  that  many  of  the  youths  were  wounded 
and  a  few  killed.  The  royal  prince  had  not  shown  the  least  fear  nor  evidence  of  fatigue, 
though  put  to  the  very  limit  of  endurance ;  "  for,"  he  said,  "  if  I  am  afraid  of  the  shadow  of 
a  combat,  how  shall  I  be  able  to  meet  the  enemy  in  real  warfare?"  These  exercises  lasted 
for  thirty  days,  during  which  the  prince  slept  on  the  ground,  went  barefooted  and  dressed 
simply,  thus  showing  his  sympathy  with  the  poorest  of  his  future  subjects.  The  tests 
concluded,  the  order  of  knighthood  was  conferred  by  the  Inca  emperor,  father  of  Maita- 
Ccapac,  all  the  young  nobles  who  had  taken  part  in  the  exercises  kneeling  with  the  royal 
heir,  one  after  another,  while  the  emperor  pierced  their  ears  with  the  fdiiri,  a  kind  of  gold 
needle  made  for  the  purpose,  which  remained  in  the  ears  until  the  hole  was  large  enough 
to  permit  the  insertion  of  the  earrings  peculiar  to  the  Incas;  these  were  not  hung  from  the 
ears  but  were  placed  in  the  pierced  opening,  and  replaced  from  time  to  time  by  rings  of 
larger  circumference,  until,  as  in  the  case  of  Maita-Ccapac,  the  cartilage  of  the  lobe  was  so 
stretched  that  it  touched  the  shoulder.  After  this  ceremony  the  greatest  of  the  Inca  nobles 
placed  on  the  feet  of  the  royal  heir  the  sandals  of  his  particular  order;  a  scarf  of  similar 
significance  to  the  toga  v/rilis  of  the  Romans  was  wound  around  his  waist,  and  his  head 
was  adorned  with  a  wreath  of  flowers, — to  indicate  that  clemency  and  goodness  should 
adorn  the  character  of  the  valiant  warrior, — while  evergreen,  intertwined  with  the  flowers, 
symbolized  the  eternal  endurance  of  such  virtues.  A  fillet  of  finest  vicuna  wool  was  bound 
around  his  head,  and  a  yellow  masca  paicha,  a  kind  of  fringe,  also  woven  of  vicuna  wool, 
was  added  to  this  headdress,  falling  over  the  brows.  The  yellow  masca  paicha  was  the 
peculiar  insignia  of  the  heir-apparent.  As  soon  as  this  ceremony  was  concluded,  all  the 
Inca  nobles  knelt  before  the  prince  and  rendered  him  homage  as  their  sovereign.  From 
this  time,  he  was  entitled  to  take  his  seat  among  the  advisers  of  his  father,  so  that  he 
might  be  initiated  into  the  art  of  governing  and  become  familiar  with  politics  and  adminis- 
tration. Being  recognized  as  of  age,  and  the  heir  to  the  throne,  he  was  given  command 
of  his  father's  armies  and  was  entitled  to  display  the  royal  standard  of  the  rainbow  in 
his  military  campaigns. 

The  coronation  of  Maita-Ccapac  was  the  occasion  of  grand  pageants,  continued  fiestas, 
and  a  brilliant  display  of  royal  magnificence.  We  are  told  that  he  "  was  crowned  with  a 
blue  masca  paicha  and  wore  a  tunic  of  white  and  green,  dotted  with  crimson  butterflies." 
His  royal  robe  was  made  of  finest  vicuila  wool  and  was  ornamented  with  gold  and  precious 
stones.  The  headdress  of  all  Inca  emperors  was  particularly  distinguished  by  two  feathers 
which  were  placed  upright  in  the  front  of  the  encircling  llautu,  or  fillet;  these  feathers  were 
plucked  from  the  wing  of  the  sacred  bird  Cori-quenca,  a  species  of  gull,  black  and  white  in 
color,  one  feather  being  taken  from  the  right  wing  of  the  male  and  the  other  from  the  left 


V 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  CUZCO  DYNASTY 


4J 


INCA   FOUNTAIN  AT   CUZCO. 


wing  of  the  female,  to  adorn  the  royal  crown.    These  birds  may  still  be  seen  in  the  vicinity 
of  Lake  Vilcanota,  near  Cuzco. 

An  invincible  warrior,  Maita-Ccapac  extended  the  power  of  the  empire  to  the  remote 
borders  of  Collasuyo  (now  Bolivia)  and  beyond  the  Apurimac  to  Arequipa  and  Moquegua. 
His  name  is  connected  with  one  of  the  most  notable  works  achieved  in  the  history  of  the 
mediaeval  world,  as  he  is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  method  and  plans  used,  by  his 
command,  in  the  construction  of  the  first  suspension  bridge  ever  built.  Over  this  bridge, 
which  was  swung  across  the  Apurimac  River,  he  passed  with  an  army  of  twelve  thousand 
men,  making  an  easy  conquest  of  the  enemy,  who  were  struck  with  awe  in  the  presence  of 
such  a  wonderful  feat.  A  second  bridge,  built  by  one  of  the  successors  of  Maita-Ccapac,  is 
still  to  be  seen  near  the  site  of  the  original  construction.  Many  of  the  andenes,  of  which 
traces  are  to  be  observed  to-day  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  were  also  constructed 
during  the  reign  of  Maita-Ccapac,  though  the  origin  of  these  terraced  farms  on  the  mountain 
side  is  placed  by  some  authorities  back  in  pre-Incaic  times.  The  andenes  were  so  named 
from  Anti,  a  province  east  of  Cuzco,  and  were  formed  by  building  stone  walls  on  the 
mountain  sides,  at  short  distances  one  above  the  other  from  the  base  to  the  summit,  and 
filling  the  enclosed  space  with  fertile  soil,  some  of  it  being  mixed  with  guano  from  the 
Chincha  Islands,  as  the  Incas  knew  the  fertilizing  value  of  this  deposit  and  made  general 
use  of  it  in  their  agriculture.  A  tradition  of  the  time  of  the  fourth  Inca  relates  that  the  loyal 
subjects  in  one  of  the  provinces  built  a  grand  palace  of  copper  in  which  to  entertain  Maita- 
Ccapac  and  his  Coya  when  they  visited  that  part  of  the  kingdom ;  and,  though  this  story  is 


44 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


no  doubt  a  fable,  yet  it  is  certain  that  mining  made  great  progress  during  this  reign.  It  is 
marvellous  that,  with  only  the  primitive  means  at  their  command,  without  iron,  powder,  or 
machinery,  these  people  extracted  gold  both  from  quartz  and  placer  mines,  and  obtained 
silver,  tin,  and  copper  as  well.  The  metal  was  smelted  in  small  furnaces  and  then  emptied 
into  moulds;  the  beautiful  ornaments  which  were  made  for  the  adornment  of  the  temples 
and  palaces  and  for  the  Inca's  wear,  afford  a  proof  of  the  remarkable  ingenuity  of  these 
primitive  artifices.  The  successor  of  Maita-Ccapac,  Inca-Ccapac  Yupanqui,  "  the  Avaricious," 
did  not  achieve  great  fame,  though  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  reign  in  subduing 
turbulent  subjects  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom.  He  was  a  miser,  and  ordered  that  all 
who  died  should  be  interred  with  their  gold  and  jewels,  his  object  being  to  secure  this 
treasure  later  for  the  royal  coffers. 

Inca  Rocca,  the  sixth  monarch  of  the  royal  house  of  Cuzco,  was  one  of  its  greatest  war- 
riors and  most  renowned  statesmen.  The  fame  of  his  conquests  spread  to  the  most  remote 
regions,  and  the  wisdom  of  his  administration  was  no  less  widely  known  and  admired. 
Everywhere  great  palaces  were  reared  to  display  the  grandeur  of  his  imperial  house,  and  it 
was  decreed  that,  at  his  death,  all  the  vast  treasures  collected  for  their  adornment  should  be 
used  to  ornament  his  tomb  and  for  the  service  of  his  family;  his  successors  followed  his 


RUINS  AT  OLLANTAYTAMBO. 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  CUZCO  DYNASTY 


45 


STONE  WALLS  OF  THE  PALACE  OF  OLLANTA.  OLLANTAYTAMBO. 


example,  and  the  brilliancy  of  the  Inca's  court  increased  with  each  subsequent  reign.  He 
founded  schools  for  the  education  of  the  nobility  under  the  direction  of  the  Amauttas, 
though  the  children  of  the  common  people  were  not  admitted,  because,  according  to  his 
view,  it  was  enough  for  them  to  learn  the  trade  of  their  fathers.  He  was,  however,  very 
solicitous  for  the  welfare  and  protection  of  all  his  subjects,  and  made  strict  laws  that 
punished  with  death  homicides,  incendiaries,  and  thieves. 

When  the  sceptre  passed  from  Inca  Rocca  to  Yahuar  Huaccac,  whose  name  signifies 
"he  who  weeps  blood,"  the  great  fiestas  that  were  held  to  celebrate  his  coronation  gave 
little  premonition  of  the  sad  ending  that  was  to  befall  this  unhappy  monarch,  who  was 
deposed  and  died  alone  in  the  desert,  some  say,  at  the  hand  of  an  assassin.  The  coronation 
ceremony  was  as  brilliant  and  imposing  as  that  of  his  illustrious  father  had  been,  the  young 
king  wearing  "a  black  tunic  and  a  blue  manta  dotted  with  lizards,  with  a  white  nusca  paicha 
and  plumage  of  gold."  It  is  said  that  the  cause  of  his  "  weeping  blood  "  was  the  arrogant, 
self-willed,  and  quarrelsome  disposition  of  the  heir-apparent,  and  the  impossibility  of 
holding  him  under  restraint.  At  last,  his  patience  exhausted,  the  emperor  banished  his 
unmanageable  son  from  court  and  condemned  him,  under  penalty  of  death  if  he  disobeyed, 
to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  life  among  the  shepherds  on  the  hills  of  Chitapampa,  a  league 
away  from  Cuzco.  Three  years  the  young  prince  passed  in  herding  sheep,  and,  as  subse- 
quent events  proved,  in  learning  other  things  besides.  At  the  end  of  that  time  he  braved 
his  father's  sentence  of  death  and  returned  to  the  royal  palace,  where,  upon  being  received 


46 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


by  the  Inca,  he  related  a  remarkable  story  of  a  vision  that  had  appeared  to  him  while  he 
was  tending  his  flocks — a  vision  of  a  majestic  personage,  clad  in  a  tunic  that  reached  tlie 
ground,  and  wearing  a  long  beard — and  thus  spoke  to  him :  "  I  am  the  god  Viracocha, 
who  created  man  and  all  that  is  on  the  earth;  yet  you  hold  me  in  no  more  veneration 
than  the  sun,  the  lightning,  and  other  works  of  my  hands.  I  come  to  notify  you  that 
the  tribes  of  Chinchasuyo  are  gathering  a  great  army  to  advance  against  the  holy  city. 
Announce  it  to  your  father,  by  my  order,  so  that  he  may  be  warned  in  time  to  repel 
the  invaders.  For  yourself,  never  fear;  in  whatever  adversity  1  will  be  with  you  and  will 
give  you  the  help  you  need."  The  emperor  discredited  the  prince's  story  and  made  no 
preparations  for  war;  but  the  son  was  soon  informed  through  various  channels  that  an 
army  of  thirty  thousand  men  was  marching  toward  Cuzco;  and,  as  the  royal  legions 
were  scattered — it  being  the  custom  among  the  Incas,  as  among  the  Romans,  to  dismiss 
their  soldiers  after  a  campaign  and  to  keep  no  large  standing  army — the  banished  prince 
took  matters  into  his  own  hands,  and,  as  his  father  fled  from  the  capital,  lie  entered  it. 


RUINS  Of-  THb  TEMPLE  OF  THE  INCA  VIRACOCHA,  NEAR  CUZCO. 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  CUZCO  DYNASTY 


47 


SEATS  FROM  WHICH   THE   INCA  AND  HIS  SUITE   VIEWED  THE  SACRIFICES. 


gathered  a  large  military  force  by  tlie  power  of  his  eloquence  and  the  indomitable  spirit 
of  a  born  warrior,  and  went  forth  to  meet  the  enemy.  After  a  prolonged  and  sanguinary 
struggle  the  invaders  were  driven  back,  and  the  victor  entered  Cuzco  in  triumph,  amidst 
the  acclaims  of  a  grateful  people.  He  was  immediately  crowned  Inca  Emperor,  with  the 
name  of  Viracocha. 

It  is  related  of  Viracocha  that,  upon  his  return  from  the  battlefield,  he  sent  three 
messages;  the  first  to  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  and  its  priests,  commanding  that  sacrifices  be 
offered  in  thanks ;  the  second  to  the  Mamaconas,  or  abbesses,  in  the  convent  of  the  vestal 
virgins;  and  the  third  to  his  father.  The  Incas  never  forgot  the  obligations  of  their  dual 
sovereignty,  an*d  in  proportion  as  their  earthly  power  was  extended  and  increased,  the 
evidences  of  their  spiritual  glory  became  more  impressive,  and  might  be  seen  in  the  greater 
riches  of  the  temple,  the  increased  splendor  of  the  annual  feasts,  and  the  higher  interpreta- 
tion given  to  their  religion.  The  priests  in  the  various  provinces  numbered  more  than  the 
imperial  army,  four  thousand  being  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  temple  in  Cuzco  alone. 
The  high  priest  who  stood  at  the  head  of  the  order  held  his  divine  office  for  life  and  was  a 
near  relative  of  the  Inca,  as  were  his  colleagues  in  charge  of  the  various  temples  throughout 
the  provinces,  the  rest  of  the  priesthood  being  chosen  from  among  the  curacas,  who  were 
chiefs  of  conquered  territories,  and  formed  one  of  the  three  orders  of  nobility.  The  highest 
nobility  of  the  realm  was  represented  in  the  princes  and  princesses  of  the  blood  royal, 
either  children  of  the  Coya,  the  queen-mother,  or  of  the  numerous  wives  in  the  royal 


48 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


seraglio ;  next  in  rank  were  the  Incas  "  by  privilege,"  who  were  descended  from  the  com- 
panions and  followers  of  Manco-Ccapac,  and  who,  in  dignities  and  dress,  were  hardly  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  royal  family;  and  finally,  the  rank  of  the  Curacas,  which  depended 
greatly  upon  the  importance  of  the  territory  over  which  they  had  ruled  before  its  conquest 
by  the  Inca;  though  in  every  case  the  Curacas  held  a  position  of  authority,  their  number 
increasing  in  proportion  to  the  extension  of  the  Inca's  empire.  The  Incas  were  obliged  to 
grant  especial  privileges  to  the  Curacas,  as  otherwise  they  could  not  have  held  in  obedience 
the  conquered  people,  who  regarded  these  chiefs  with  great  reverence. 

It  was  also  in  accordance  with  religious  sentiment  that  the  second  message  of  Viracocha 
should  have  been  directed  to  the  Mamaconas,  who  were  the  guardians  of  the  vestal  virgins, 
and  were  appointed  to  tliis  office  after  they  had  themselves  grown  old  in  watching  over  the 
sacred  fire  that  burned  forever  on  the  altar.  Not  only  did  the  Virgins  of  the  Sun  watch 
over  the  sacred  fire,  but  they  wove  all  the  beautiful  garments  of  vicuna  wool  used  in  the 
apparel  of  the  Inca  and  his  family,  they  worked  the  exquisite  embroideries  that  adorned 
the  hangings  of  the  temple,  and  they  were  indispensable  in  the  preparation  of  the  magnifi- 
cent feasts  that  celebrated  the  Inca's  triumphs;  probably  it  was  this  last  fact  which  led 
Viracocha  to  send  his  second  message  to  the  Mamaconas ;  for  the  splendors  of  the  festivities 
held  in  honor  of  his  triumph  over  the  enemy  and  his  coronation  as  Inca  Emperor  eclipsed 


THE   RODADERO.  CUZCO,  SITE   CHOSEN    FOR    RUNNING   CONTESTS   OP   THE    HUARACU. 


THE  RISE  OF  THE  CUZCO  DYNASTY  49 

all  previous  celebrations,  not  only  in  the  capital  but  throu^^hout  the  empire.  The  message 
from  Viracocha  to  his  royal  father  could  hardly  have  afforded  unalloyed  satisfaction,  since  it 
evidently  conveyed  the  intention  of  the  victor  to  possess  the  spoils,  in  the  form  of  the 
imperial  ILiiitii,  and  to  occupy  the  throne  which  his  energy  and  courage  had  successfully 
guarded,  when  the  cowardly  flight  of  Yahuar  Huaccac  exposed  it  to  destruction. 

In  the  first  year  of  his  eventful  reign,  Viracocha  ordered  the  construction  of  the 
sumptuous  temple  of  which  the  majestic  ruins  are  still  to  be  seen  twenty  miles  south 
of  Cuzco.  The  walls  of  the  temple  were  erected  on  an  elevated  base,  which  was  built 
with  five  andenes,  or  steps,  leading  up  to  it  from  the  level  of  the  plain,  and  the  temple 
covered  an  area  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  long  by  twenty-five  feet  wide,  the  wall 
being  built  of  hewn  stone  from  the  ground  up  to  half  its  height,  and  of  adobe  for  the 
remainder.  The  edifice  had  eight  lofty  doors  and  as  many  windows,  and  on  one  side 
stood  an  altar  with  a  statue  of  the  deity  Viracocha,  representing  him,  as  he  appeared  to 
the  prince  during  his  banishment,  "with  a  flowing  beard."  It  is  believed  by  many  writers 
that  this  temple,  which  shows  a  different  architecture  from  that  of  all  other  Incaic  edifices, 
was  constructed  before  the  advent  of  Manco-Ccapac  by  the  Canas  (whom  the  third  Inca 
subjugated  at  great  cost),  and  that  Viracocha  did  no  more  than  to  restore  and  embellish  it. 

Viracocha  took  advantage  of  all  means  to  extend  and  increase  the  power  of  his  mon- 
archy, and,  in  addition  to  the  famous  temple  "Viracocha,"  he  ordered  the  construction  of 
many  others,  as  well  as  of  new  palaces  and  gardens  in  various  parts  of  the  empire.  He 
made  journeys  to  all  the  conquered  provinces,  and  while  in  Collasuyo,  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  thirty  thousand  men,  he  received  ambassadors  from  Charcas,  who  came  to  render 
homage  to  so  great  a  prince;  it  is  said  that  from  these  emissaries  the  Incas  first  received 
information  about  a  country  to  the  south,  called  "  Chile,"  which  was  destined  later  to  be 
added  to  the  territories  in  vassalage  to  the  emperors  of  Cuzco.  During  Viracocha's  reign, 
eleven  provinces  were  added  to  the  empire. 

One  of  the  greatest  engineering  feats  accomplished  under  the  civilization  of  the  Incas, 
was  the  construction,  by  Viracocha's  order,  of  an  extensive  irrigating  canal,  twelve  feet 
in  depth  and  nearly  four  hundred  miles  long,  which,  crossing  the  present  departments 
of  Huancavelica  and  Ayacucho,  watered  the  plains  of  Castrovireina  and  Cangallo,  making 
them  green  and  flourishing  pasture  lands.  This  enterprise  is  the  more  remarkable  when 
the  nature  of  the  country  is  considered,  as  the  work  was  carried  on  at  an  altitude  of  from 
twelve  to  sixteen  thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  and  in  the  face  of  such  obstacles  as 
gigantic  rocks  that  had  to  be  removed  without  blasting  machinery  or  iron  implements, 
great  ravines  to  be  bridged  and  mountain  torrents  to  be  harnessed  and  utilized.  The 
hydraulic  works  constructed  by  the  Incas  are  the  wonder  and  admiration  of  all  who 
have  seen  the  evidences  of  their  extent  and  perfection  that  remain  to  this  day  in  the 
sierra  and  the  coast  region.  Natural  lakes  at  the  head  of  the  coast  valleys  were  in  many 
instances  enlarged,  and  immense  dams  and  aqueducts  were  built  to  conduct  to  the  irrigating 
canals  the  water  which  descended  from  the  mountain  summits  to  the  barren  coast  land. 


so 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE^  PERU 


At  the  death  of  Viracocha  the  sceptre  passed  to  his  eldest  son,  who,  however,  was  too 
dull  and  weak,  the  records  say,  to  rule  over  an  empire  composed  of  so  many  elements  that 
had  not  as  yet  become  settled  and  consolidated  into  a  united  people.  It  required  a  strong 
hand  and  clear  judgment  to  direct  the  affairs  of  state  so  that  rebellion  should  not  overturn 
the  rapidly  growing  power  of  the  Incas,  and  that  successful  insurrection  might  not  lessen 
the  prestige  of  a  monarchy  that  claimed  celestial  origin.  The  second  son  of  Viracocha, 
Pachacutec,  was  the  opposite  of  his  brother  in  character,  and  possessed  all  the  requirements 
of  a  monarch  which  the  other  lacked.  He  was  elevated  to  the  throne  on  his  brother's 
death,  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  began  his  reign  by  cementing  the 
bonds  that  held  the  various  tributary  provinces  loyal  to  the  sovereignty  of  Cuzco,  and  by 
making  new  conquests,  in  which  the  military  genius  of  his  son,  the  heir-apparent,  was 
displayed  in  deeds  as  valorous  and  noble  as  those  performed  by  his  illustrious  father. 


FOREIGN  TOURISTS  AT  OLLANTAYTAMBO. 


OF  THE 


[UNIVERSITYJ 


■^ 


V 


CHAPTER  III 


THE    VAST   EMPIRE    OF    THE    INCAS 


A  LTHOUGH  Viracocha  was  one  of  the  greatest 
monarchs  of  Cuzco,  it  was  his  son  who 
brought  the  Inca  dynasty  to  such  a  high  degree 
of  prestige  and  power  that  the  great  empire  gained 
unprecedented  wealtli  and  territory.  Pachacutec 
has  been  called  the  second  Manco-Ccapac,  and  his 
name  signifies  "  he  who  creates  the  world  anew," 
showing  what  an  exalted  place  he  occupied  among 
the  Inca  emperors  in  the  annals  of  his  country. 
He  was  an  accomplished  diplomatist  as  well  as  a 
skilful  warrior,  a  statesman  of  farseeing  judgment, 
and  a  philosopher,  it  was  as  a  diplomatist  that 
he  gained  the  cooperation  and  loyal  service  of  the 
curacas  of  newly  conquered  provinces,  and  by  his 
skill  as  a  warrior  that  his  armies  were  so  well 
organized  aiid  disciplined  as  to  win  victories  in  all 
the  campaigns  which  the  heir-apparent  led  against 
the  tribes  of  the  coast,  carrying  his  conquests  from 
Pisco,  Nasca,  lea,  and  Pachacamac  to  the  realm  of 
tlie  hitherto  much  dreaded  and  altogether  invincible 
Grand  Chimu.  The  name  of  the  young  prince,  Tupac- Yupanqui,  is  particularly  associated 
with  the  conquest  of  Cajamarca ;  and  the  return  of  the  hero  to  Cuzco  at  the  close  of  that 
campaign  was  made  the  occasion  of  a  national  celebration  throughout  the  empire. 

it  must  have  been  an  imposing  and  magnificent  spectacle  when  the  Emperor  Pacha- 
cutec met  the  victorious  prince  outside  of  the  capital  on  his  return  from  Cajamarca,  and 
entered  the  city  with  the  royal  heir,  the  latter  "borne  in  a  gold  litter  on  the  shoulders 
of  conquered  chiefs  and  preceded  bv  troops  of  newly  gained  vassals,  who  sang  the 

!)3 


CORNER-STONE  OF  AN  ANCIENT  FORTRESS,  CUZCO. 


S4 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


glories  of  the  prince,  with  the  triumphant  'Haylli!'  to  thrill  the  heart  of  the  multitude 
and  carry  them  beyond  bounds  as  they  caught  its  victorious  note."  The  pathway  of  the 
prince  was  covered  with  flowers,  and  crossed  at  short  intervals  by  triumphal  arches. 
The  curacas  marched  at  the  head  of  processions  from  the  different  provinces,  each  in 
their  local  costumes,  dancing  and  singing  songs  of  victory;  these  were  followed  by  the 
legions  of  the  army,  who  filled  the  air  with  cheers  for  their  general.  The  nobility  came 
next  in  line,  splendid  in  court  dress  and  brilliant  ornaments ;  and,  lastly,  the  royal  litter  of 
the  emperor  side  by  side  with  that  of  the  prince,  gave  to  the  pageant  its  culminating  glory. 
The  procession  wound  its  way  through  the  streets  to  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  where,  with 
impressive  ceremonies,  thanks  were  rendered  to  the  deity  whose  protection  they  believed 
had  won  the  great  victory. 

The  Inca's  armies  entered  the  valleys  of  Pachacamac,  Rimac,  and  Chancay  late  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  effected  the  allegiance  of  all  that  territory  with  little  resistance; 
though  it  was  an  alliance  rather  than  a  conquest  which  the  monarch  of  Cuzco  proposed 
to  the  powerful  ruler  of  the  Yungas,  as  the  people  of  that  region  were  called.  According  to 
their  treaty,  the  lord  of  Pachacamac  was  to  keep  his  dominions,  though  under  the  authority 
of  the  imperial  government;  and  the  religion  of  Pachacamac  was  to  be  protected,  on  condi- 
tion that  the  people  also  worshipped  the  Sun.  It  was  after  this  alliance  that  the  Temple  of 
the  Sun  and  the  Convent  of  the  Vestal  Virgins  were  erected  near  the  ancient  edifice  dedicated 
to  the  Creator.  Later,  the  chiefs  of  this  part  of  the  coast  region  united  their  forces  with  the 
armies  of  Cuzco  and  marched  against  the  Grand  Chimu,  glad  to  render  assistance  in  an 
effort  to  crush  their  common  enemy.  The  trained  legions  of  Cuzco  suffered  greatly  at 
first,  on  account  of  the  intense  heat,  and  their  general  was  forced  to  send  to  his  father  for 
reinforcements ;  the  resistance  was  stronger  and  more  resolute  than  that  of  any  enemy  the 
Incas  had  hitherto  encountered;  but  repeated  reinforcements  arrived,  and  the  archers, 
lancers,  and  catapult  regiments  made  havoc  in  the  Chimu's  dominions,  which  was  intensi- 
fied when  the  enemy  turned  the  course  of  the  rivers  that  flowed  from  the  sierra,  to  drain 
their  .plantations,  and  famine  added  to  the  horrors  of  combat.  Capitulations  were  made, 
the  Inca  permitting  the  Grand  Chimu  to  govern  his  dominions,  as  had  been  done  in  the 
treaty  of  Pachacamac,  and  exacting  only  that  the  people  should  render  homage  to  the  Inca 
and  worship  the  Sun.  A  general  edict  was  issued  by  Pachacutec  at  this  time  which  proved 
one  of  the  most  powerful  agencies  in  the  consolidation  of  his  great  empire ;  it  was  decreed 
that  all  vassals  of  the  realm  should  learn  Quichua,  and  teachers  were  appointed  in  every 
province  to  see  that  the  language  was  taught  and  used  throughout  the  country.  All 
government  officials  were  obliged  to  know  the  national  idiom  and  no  one  was  permitted 
to  occupy  a  place  of  authority  or  to  have  dignities  or  seignory  conferred  upon  him  if 
he  could  not  speak  it.  Every  soldier  of  the  army,  which  grew  to  number  two  hundred 
thousand  men,  spoke  this  language. 

During  the  reign  of  Pachaeutec,  the  government  of  the  empire  was  established  on 
a  firmer  basis  than  ever,  and  legislation,  though  in  reality  only  an  expression  of  the 


I 


I 


THE  yAST  EM  HI  RE  OF  THE  INC  AS 


S5: 


supreme  will  of  the  Inca  (there  was  no  word  for  "law,"  which  was  rendered  apupsimi, 
"the  word  of  the  chief"),  made  clear  to  every  subject  what  his  duties  were  to  his  sovereign 
and  to  the  state.  The  Inca  Pachacutec  ordered  that  all  children  over  five  years  of  age 
should  have  some  employment  appropriate  to  their  age  and  their  father's  profession.  The 
blind,  mute,  and 
lame  were  given 
light  work,  and  even 
the  most  ignorant 
and  weak-minded 
were  employed,  as 
a  safeguard  against 
laziness.  On  the 
other  hand,  he  set 
aside  three  days  in 
each  month  for 
fiestas,  and  harvest 
time  was  a  season 
of  general  rejoicing. 
TJieJands  of  the  em- 
pirejwere  all  owned 
by  the  Inca  and 
agriculture  was  the 
chief  occupation  of 
his  subjects ;  the 
Inca  himself  turned 
the  first  furrow 
every  year,  with  a 
golden  plough.  The 
products  of  the  har- 
vest were  divided 
into  three  parts ; 
first,  the  I nca's  share 
was  set  aside  to 
sustain  the  splendor 

of  the  throne  and  to  ancient  street  of  cuzco.  showing  incaic  walls. 

meet  public  neces- 
sities; then  the  share  for  the  Sun  was  devoted  to  the  needs  of  the  church,  the  priests  and  all 
who  served  in  the  temples ;  and  finally  the  communities  received  their  share,  out  of  which 
each  tiller  of  the  soil  was  provided  with  what  he  needed.     Prjvate  property  did  not  exist, 
and  no  one  had  any  individual  rights  whatever ;  on  the  other  hand,  every  subject  was~given 


^6  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEPV  PERU 

food  and  clothing  and  a  house  in  which  to  live,  though  only  as  the  Inca's  dependent  ward, 
who  could  never  hope  to  outgrow  his  "minority."  it  is  not  surprising  that  patience  and 
obedience  became  the  predominating  virtues  of  the  race!  The  system  of  administration, 
which  made  it  possible  for  the  Inca  to  maintain  his  absolute  authority  over  such  a  vast 
territory  and  population  is  explained  partly  in  the  frequent  transporting  of  mitimaes,  or 
colonists,  from  their  native  province  to  another,  which  prevented  concerted  plans  for  revolt, 
and  partly  in  the  division  of  the  population  into  decades,  or  groups  of  ten,  five  of  these 
groups  constituting  a  body  of  fifty,  two  of  these  bodies  making  a  centenary,  and  so  on,  the 
whole  empire  being  governed  in  provinces  of  ten  thousand  inhabitants;  each  of  the  sub- 
divisions had  an  officer  in  authority  who  was  answerable  to'the  chief  officer  of  the  larger 
group  of  which  his  division  formed  a  part,  until  the  supreme  authority  was  reached.  As 
may  be  supposed,  the  larger  divisions  were  under  the  direction  and  control  of  the  nobles, 
the  provinces  of  ten  thousand  being  governed  by  the  Inca  nobility,  who  had  command 
over  the  curacas  and  otlier  territorial  officers  of  his  district. 

The  subjects  of  the  Inca  could  not  even  choose  their  life  partners;  raatrimany  was 
obligatory  and,  as  its  results  affected  the  well-being  of  the  state,  the  Inca  maintained  the 
right  to  govern  in  this  as  in  all  other  matters.  In  the  royal  family,  the  ceremony  was 
performed  by  the  emperor  himself,  though  in  marriages  of  lesser  importance  his  officers 
discharged  this  formality,  appointing  a  day  for  a  general  ceremony,  when  all  the  young 
men  of  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  and  girls  of  from  eighteen  to  twenty  presented  them- 
selves in  a  row,  the  men  in  front;  after  the  wedding,  the  young  people  took  possession  of 
the  houses  wliich  their  community  was  obliged  to  build  for  them,  the  furniture  being 
supplied  by  their  family.  No  one  could  marry  outside  of  his  or  her  parcialidad,  or  town- 
ship, and,  as  it  was  obligatory  to  wear  the  dress  of  one's  forefathers  arid  not  to  move  from 
any  town  to  another  without  leave  from  the  authorities,  it  may  readily  be  understood  that  the 
costumes  worn  in  the  various  sections  of  Peru  were  as  distinctive  of  class  and  locality  as  is 
the  Scotch  tartan.    The  custom  still  remains  in  the  sierra,  and  the  effect  is  most  picturesque. 

Throughout  the  long  reign  of  sixty  years  which  is  given  by  the  historians  to  Pachacutec, 
his  sagacity  and  benevolence  were  seen  in  every  branch  of  his  administration.  He  died  at 
the  age  of  eighty  years,  and  left  the  throne  to  Tupac- Yupanqui,  the  tenth  emperor  of  Cuzco, 
who  made  the  conquest  of  Chile  as  far  south  as  the  Maule  River,  and  spent  three  years 
visiting  his  kingdom.  The  royal  progress  was  of  the  most  magnificent  description;  the 
litter  of  the  great  monarch  was  resplendant  with  gold  and  precious  jewels,  displaying  in  its 
adornment  the  sacred  symbols  of  sun  worship,  as  it  was  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  the 
Inca's  proudest  nobles.  With  a  gorgeous  retinue  the  great  lord  of  Cuzco  proceeded  along 
the  highway,  which  was  lined  throughout  the  route  by  adoring  subjects,  who  strewed  the 
pathway  of  their  deity-king  with  flowers  and  sang  songs  in  his  praise;  when  the  tran- 
scendent glory  of  the  Son  of  the  Sun  was  revealed  to  them  for  a  brief  moment,  as  tlie 
curtains  of  the  litter  were  raised  and  the  royal  countenance  became  visible,  their  acclama- 
tions were  joyous  and  fervent  beyond  words.    According  to  Sarmiento,  one  of  the  early 


THE  yAST  EMPIRE  OF  THE  mCAS 


57 


historians,  the  royal  guard  and  retinue  that  accompanied  the  Incas  always  made  a  splendid 
spectacle.    Close  to  the  litter  of  the  emperor,  and  forming  a  brilliant  and  impenetrable  guard. 


IS 


,r 


^^^.^^t^. 


PRINCIPAL   HALL   OF   THE   INCA  OBSERVATORY.  INTI-HUATANA. 


were  his  majesty's  halberdiers  and  archers  on  each  side,  five  thousand  soldiers  in  front,  with 
catapults  (weapons  used  with  unfailing  effect  by  the  armies  of  Cuzco),  and  as  many  lancers 
with  their  captains  behind,  while  heralds  hurried  back  and  forth,  clearing  the  way  and 
announcing  the  approach  of  the  mighty  lord.  The  people  were  glad  to  see  their  mon-' 
arch,  not  only  to  witness  the  glory  and  splendor  in  which  he  appeared,  but  also  because 
it  was  the  royal  custom,  observed  by  Manco-Ccapac  and  all  his  successors,  for  the 
Inca  to  take  this  opportunity  of  hearing  his  people's  grievances  and  regulating  matters 
referred  to  his  decision  by  the  provincial  tribunals.  Wherever  he  halted  grand  fiestas  were 
celebrated  in  his  honor ;  and  so  well  stocked  with  provisions  were  the  royal  tambos,  that  all 
the  Inca's  suite,  as  well  as  his  troops,  could  be  served  with  their  accustomed  food  and 
all  comforts.  The  Inca  was  kept  in  constant  communication  with  Cuzco — no  matter  how 
far  away  from  the  capital  his  travels  might  lead  him — by  his  chasquis,  or  postboys.  On  all 
the  principal  roads  leading  from  Cuzco  post  offices  were  established,  not  like  the  modern 
repositories  of  letters,  but  small  huts,  in  which  a  number  of  chasqnis  were  stationed  to 
receive  and  carry  forward  messages  of  the  government.  These  posts  were  only  a  few 
miles  apart,  and  the  chasqnis,  who  were  chosen  for  their  fleetness  as  runners  as  well  as  for 


58 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEI4^  PERU 


their  fidelity,  were  relieved  by  a  perfect  system  of  relays,  so  that  it  was  possible  for  mes- 
sages to  be  carried  fifty  leagues  in  a  day.  The  chasqiUs  were  of  great  value  in  times  of 
war,  as  may  readily  be  seen,  and  they  were  also  pressed  into  the  domestic  service  of  the 
royal  palace,  being  employed  to  bring  fruits,  game,  and  (we  are  seriously  informed  by 
the  historian)  even  fish,  from  the  tropical  coast  region,  for  the  imperial  table. 

Tupac- Yupanqui  is  named  by  some  authorities  as  the  successor  of  Inca  Yupanqui,  to 
whom  they  give  all  the  glory  of  the  long  and  brilliant  reign  which  others  credit  to  Tupac- 
Yupanqui.  On  the  other  hand,  many  historians  say  that  Inca  Yupanqui's  reign  was  brief  and 
uneventful,  except  for  his  campaigns,  undertaken  to  subdue  the  Mojos  of  the  region  of  the 
Beni  and  the  Chiriguanas  of  the  Bolivian  Chaco.  He  failed  in  both  enterprises  and  then 
turned  his  armies  toward  Quito,  though  with  little  better  success.  Tupac-Yupanqui  had  a 
young  son,  however,  who  was  destined  to  bring  the  power  and  prestige  of  the  Children  of 
the  Sun  to  the  very  zenith  of  glory.  This  prince,  whose  name  was  Huayna-Ccapac,  took 
command  of  the  imperial  forces  in  the  later  years  of  his  father's  life  and  marched  against  the 


SHOWING   THE   TWELVE-ANGLE  STONE,  RUINS  AT  CUZCO. 


king  of  Quito,  whom  he  defeated,  gaining  possession  of  his  kingdom.  Alas,  the  conquest  of 
Quito,  the  most  brilliant  victory  yet  won  by  the  Children  of  the  Sun,  proved  to  be  "the 
beginning  of  the  end,"  the  source  of  the  disunion  of  the  great  Inca  empire,  a  calamity  which 
contributed  in  an  important  degree  to  make  it  possible  for  a  small  group  of  invaders  to 


THE  VAST  EMPIRE  OF  THE  INC /IS 


S9 


accomplish  the  downfall  of  one  of  the  most  powerful  monarchies  that  ever  developed 
among  a  primitive  people! 

The  historical  records  of  the  reign  of  Huayna-Ccapac  are  generally  regarded  as  reliable, 
since  he  died  only  a  few  years  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the  events  of  his 


THE   INCA'S  BATH.  OLLANTAYTAMBO. 


government  were  still  fresh  in  the  minds  of  iiis  people.  Not  only  did  this  monarch  add  to 
the  number  of  magnificent  temples  and  palaces  erected  throughout  the  empire,  but  he  built  a 
new  highway  from  Cuzco  to  Quito  and  completed  the  great  road  from  the  capital  to  Chile. 
The  famous  tradition  of  Ollantaytambo  is  said  to  have  its  origin  in  the  rebellion  of  one  of  the 
nobles  of  the  court  of  Huayna-Ccapac,  named  Ollanta,  who  resisted  the  power  of  the  Inca  in 
his  stronghold  until  finally  conquered  by  the  superior  strength  of  the  emperor's  forces.  The 
ruins  of  Ollantaytambo,  forty  miles  north  of  Cuzco,  are  among  the  most  imposing  in  Peru, 
though  according  to  some  archaeologists  the  edifice  was  built  in  pre-hicaic  times,  and  was  only 
restored  and  embellished  by  the  Incas.  The  same  is  said  of  nearly  all  the  great  temples, 
except  Coricancha,  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  in  Cuzco,  and  a  few  others,  though  it  is  not 
certain  in  whose  reign  Coricancha  was  built ;  probably  the  work  of  construction  extended 
over  several  reigns.  Huayna-Ccapac  is  said  to  have  had  a  strong  leaning  toward  philosophy, 
and,  like  some  of  his  predecessors,  he  gave  numerous  proverbs  and  mottoes  to  his  people, 
which  the  early  historians  were  able  to  get  from  the  quipucamayos.     He  was  the  first  to 


6o  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

declare  that  he  believed  in  the  existence  of  a  higher  power  than  the  Sun,  and  the  reason  he 
gave  for  this  disloyalty  to  the  deity  of  the  Incas  is  very  interesting.  It  is  related  that  he 
first  gave  expression  to  his  new  creed  during  a  visit  to  his  subjects  of  Collasuyo.  He  had 
gone  with  his  court  to  spend  some  time  on  the  sacred  island  of  the  Sun  in  Lake  Titicaca, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  devoted  much  attention  to  plans  of  reform,  in  religion,  industries, 
and  other  features  of  administration.  From  this  point  he  had  visited  the  monuments  of 
Tiahuanaco,  and  was  celebrating  the  great  annual  feast  of  Raymi  at  Chuquiapu  (La  Paz, 
Bolivia).  His  uncle,  the  chief  priest  of  the  temple,  observed  that  the  Inca  spent  much  time 
gazing  at  the  sun,  and  said  to  him,  "Thou  knowest,  Inca,  that  it  is  not  permitted  to  look  so 
freely  at  our  father,  tlie  Sun,  and  thou  art  causing  a  grand  scandal  in  the  court  and  among  all 
thy  subjects  assembled  to  worship  our  supreme  lord."  In  return,  the  emperor  asked:  " Is 
there  anyone  in  the  empire  who  could  oblige  me  to  make  a  long  journey?  Is  there  anyone 
who  would  dare  to  disobey  me  if  I  ordered  him  to  journey  to  Chile?"  "No,"  was  the 
answer  of  the  priest;  "No  one  would  dare  to  give  orders  to  his  sovereign,  nor  to  disobey 
him."  "Then  I  tell  you,"  replied  the  Inca,  "that  our  father,  the  Sun,  has  a  ruler  greater  and 
more  powerful  than  himself ;  for  the  sun  never  rests  on  the  journey  which  he  makes  every 
day,  and  the  supreme  lord  no  doubt  does  things  leisurely  and  halts  when  it  pleases  him, 
even  though  he  has  no  need  of  repose." 

The  feast  of  Raymi  was  the  most  brilliant  and  popular  of  all  the  national  celebrations. 
It  usually  took  place  at  Cuzco,  as  the  permanent  residence  of  the  Inca  was  in  that  city,  and 
was  held  at  the  period  of  the  summer  solstice,  which,  south  of  the  equator,  occurs  in 
December.  Three  other  fiestas  of  especial  importance  were  held  during  the  year  to  cele- 
brate the  solstices  of  June,  March,  and  September,  though  none  of  these  equalled  in 
elaborate  ceremony  and  display  the  "  Ccapac-Raymi."  For  three  days  previous  to  the  21st 
of  December  there  was  a  general  fast,  and  on  the  morning  of  that  day  the  Inca,  in  company 
with  his  family  and  the  nobles  of  his  court,  attired  in  gala  dress  and  wearing  their  most 
gorgeous  adornments,  awaited  the  appearance  of  the  rising  sun.  A  multitude  filled  the 
plaza,  presenting  in  the  variety  of  their  dress  and  ornaments, — as  they  represented  the 
different  tribes  gathered  under  the  standard  of  the  rainbow  in  many  campaigns, — the  aspect 
of  an  assembly  gathered  from  the  four  corners  of  the  globe.  As  the  sun  rose,  smiling  on  the 
sacred  city  in  benediction,  the  crowd  broke  forth  in  a  shout  of  praise  and  thanksgiving; 
while  joyous  songs  and  the  melody  of  music  from  a  thousand  curious  instruments  throbbed 
on  the  air.  Dr.  Lorente  in  describing  this  feast  says:  "The  Inca,  filling  two  glasses  with 
chicha,  (a  fermented  liquor  of  maize,  the  popular  drink  of  the  Indians  in  the  sierra  to-day  as 
it  was  hundreds  of  years  ago,)  offered  them  to  his  divine  father,  the  Sun,  and  then  poured  the 
contents  of  the  glass  he  held  in  his  right  hand  into  a  golden  receptacle,  which  by  a  secret 
channel  flowed  into  the  Temple  of  the  Sun.  The  contents  of  the  other  glass  were  first 
sipped  by  the  Inca,  who  passed  it  to  his  nobles  that  they  might  do  the  same."  After  this 
libation,  all  repaired  to  the  temple,  which  they  entered  barefooted,  the  multitude  being 
required  to  remove  their  sandals  two  hundred  steps  from  the  sacred  portal,  which  they 


THE  l/AST  EMPIRE  OF  THE  IhJCAS 


6i 


might  not  enter.    After  the  Inca's  invocation  to  the  Sun,  the  procession  made  its  way  to  the 
plaza  where  the  sacrificial  offerings  of  llamas  were  made  and  the  feasting  began  in  all  its 


I 


THE  HOUSE  OF  THE  SERPENTS,  CUZCO. 


intensity.  It  lasted  for  a  week,  during  which  the  chicha  jars — huge  earthenware  vessels — 
were  increased  and  refilled  constantly,  and  dancing  was  kept  up  day  and  night  without 
ceasing.  The  feast  of  the  harvest,  held  the  21st  of  March,  was  regarded  with  great  rever- 
ence, as  it  was  then  the  fire  was  drawn  from  the  Sun's  rays  to  light  the  sacred  flame  for  the 
altar;  the  rays  were  focussed  on  a  metallic  mirror  which  the  Inca  wore  in  a  bracelet  on 
his  right  arm,  and  by  this  means  a  small  piece  of  cotton  was  ignited,  the  fire  being  then 
guarded  by  the  Virgins  of  the  Sun  until  the  feast  of  the  ensuing  year. 

Under  the  influence  of  a  common  religion,  a  common  language,  and  a  common  govern- 
ment the  consolidation  of  the  great  Inca  empire  was  effected,  and  it  must  be  conceded  that 
the  benevolent  character  of  the  despotism  which  its  sovereigns  exercised  was  the  saving_ 
feature  of  a  system  which  must  seem,  to  the  freedom-loving  spirit  of  the  twentieth  century, 
the  worst  species  of  barbarism.  Yet  for  a  primitive  people,  who  shall  say  that  the 
government  of  Cuzco  did  not  accomplish  more  toward  civilizing  them  than  a  less  autocratic 
but  more  oppressive  system  would  have  done?  In  the  course  of  time,  might  not  Inca 
philosophers,  such  as  Pachacutec  and  Huayna-Ccapac,  more  advanced  in  their  ideas  by 
social  evolution,  gradually  extend  more  privileges  to  their  subjects  and  lift  them  up  to  a 


62 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


higher  level?  The  empire  had  apparently  reached  its  farthest  boundaries  with  the  con- 
quests of  Chile  and  Quito,  and  the  period  of  insurrection  and  insubordination  had  passed, 
as  a  result  of  wise  measures  taken  to  bind  all  the  Inca's  subjects  together  in  a  common 
interest,  through  the  practice  of  a  common  religion  and  the  exclusive  use  of  a  common 
language.     It  was  the  most  promising  moment  in  the  development  of  the  race. 

The  story  of  Huayna-Ccapac's  fear  and  foreboding  when  the  news  was  carried  to 
him  in  his  palace  on  the  island  of  Lake  Titicaca  that  "  white  and  bearded  men  "  had  been 
seen  in  the  region  of  the  coast,  and  of  his  retirement  to  Quito  to  pass  the  remainder  of 
his  days  in  the  society  of  his  favorite  Pacha,  the  mother  of  Atahuallpa,  is  well  known. 
Unfortunately,  the  poetical  romance  of  Atahuallpa's  birth  in  the  conquered  city  of  his 
mother's  people,  and  of  his  winning  the  proud  heart  of  his  father,  so  that  the  rightful 
heir  to  the  throne  of  Cuzco  was  relegated  to  a  second  place  in  the  Inca's  affections,  has 
been  pronounced  a  fable ;  because  Atahuallpa  was  twelve  years  old  when  Huayna-Ccapac 
conquered  Quito.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  proof  that  Huayna-Ccapac  did  not 
invade  Quito  previous  to  its  conquest.  At  any  rate,  the  story  is  b/eii  troiivee.  The  question 
of  disposing  of  his  empire  vexed  the  great  Inca,  who  wished  to  provide  well  for  his  favorite 
son,  but  was  bound  to  recognize  the  exalted  rights  of  the  Coya's  heir,  Huascar,  at  whose 
birth  the  national  rejoicings  had  been  greater  than  on  the  natal  day  of  any  other  prince  of 
Cuzco.  The  legend  of  Huascar's  golden  chain,  which  was  long  enough  to  encircle  the 
plaza  of  Cuzco  three  times,  is  still  repeated,  and  expeditions  still  seek  it  in  the  various 
places  where  it  is  said  to  have  been  concealed  on  the  approach  of  the  Spaniards.  Finally 
the  throne  of  Cuzco  was  given  to  Huascar,  and  that  of  Quito  to  Atahuallpa.  Neither  was 
satisfied,  and  their  quarrels  and  combats  resulted  in  dividing  the  empire  under  rival  powers 
at  the  supreme  moment  when  unity  was  its  only  hope  for  salvation. 


DOORWAY   OF   THE   OBSERVATORY,  INTI-HUATANA. 


""   oe  THE 

'university^ 

fcCALIFORy^ 


CHAPTER   IV 


THE   SPANISH    DISCOVERY   AND    INVASION    UNDER    PIZARRO 


"V^/'HILE  the  empire  of  the  Incas  was 
approaching  the  zenith  of  its  great- 
ness in  America,  Spain  was  extending  the 
power  and  prestige  of  the  House  of  Austria 
tliroughout  Europe  under  tlie  sovereignty  of 
tlie  Emperor  Chades  V.  And  the  proud 
dynasty  of  the  Hapsburgs,  whose  double- 
headed  eagle  was  destined  to  obscure  the 
Sun  of  Tahuantinsuyo  and  to  efface  the 
sacred  Rainbow  in  its  shadow,  did  not  repre- 
sent a  more  exalted  royalty  in  the  Old  World 
than  did  that  of  Manco-Ccapac  in  the  New. 
There  are  even  some  points  of  resemblance 
between  the  two  monarchies,  so  remotely 
separated  in  origin  and  traditions.  In  Peru, 
as  in  Spain,  the  army  and  the  Church  were 
the  only  occupations  worthy  of  the  nobility; 
in  both  countries,  wars  of  conquest  were 
fought  in  the  name  of  religion,  with  the 
emblem  of  salvation  in  one  hand  and  that 
of  destruction  in  the  other, — the  Inca  with 
the  golden  disk  and  the  catapult,  the  Spaniard  with  the  Cross  and  the  sword ;  and  both  led 
their  armies  against  the  infidel  with  the  determination  to  destroy  his  idols  and  to  establish 
the  true  worship. 

However  much  we  may  condemn  the  method  of  the  Spanish  conquerors,  their  mission 
was  not  altogether  mercenary  in  its  purpose.  It  is  not  strange  that  the  yellow  metal 
dimmed  their  consciences  when  it  blazed  before  their  eyes  on  the  temples  of  Mexico 

6? 


ANCIENT   STREET   OF  CUZCO. 


66  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

and  Peru;  yet,  even  then,  as  Prescott  says:  "In  the  motives  of  action,  meaner  influences 
were  strangely  mingled  with  the  loftier,  the  temporal  with  the  spiritual."  The  hardy  and 
romantic  adventurers  who  followed  in  the  wake  of  Columbus  were  not  merely  sordid  gold 
hunters;  they  were  the  descendants  of  soldiers  who  had  for  centuries  fought  in  the  holy 
wars  of  the  Cross  against  the  Crescent,  and  in  their  veins  flowed  the  blood  of  the  knight- 
errant  and  the  crusader.  Gold  they  sought  with  eagerness  and  without  scruple;' but  they 
wanted  glory  almost  as  much  as  they  wanted  gold,  and  in  the  pursuit  of  both,  they  carried 
aloft  the  banner  of  the  Church,  and  sought  the  blessing  of  its  ministers.  As  soon  as  a 
newly  discovered  land  was  taken  possession  of  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Spain,  the 
Cross  was  elevated  in  token  of  the  triumph  of  Christianity.  Columbus  erected  the  Cross 
in  Hispaniola,  and  Cortes  followed  up  his  victory  over  the  Aztecs  with  their  forcible  con- 
version to  the  true  faith.  In  Peru,  a  less  pious  discoverer  than  Columbus  and  a  more 
ruthless  invader  than  Cortes  employed  the  sacred  office  of  the  priest  to  aid  him  in  accom- 
plishing an  act  of  treachery  so  odious  that  it  dims  the  glory  of  his  conquest  and  places  him 
below  the  standard  even  of  mediaeval  adventurers. 

Francisco  Pizarro,  a  native  of  Trujillo  in  Spain,  began  life  under  all  the  disadvantages 
which  are  the  lot  of  the  illegitimate  child,  but  which,  in  many  instances,  school  him  in  a 
discipline  so  rigorous  that  as  he  grows  to  manhood  he  becomes  thoroughly  inured  to 
hardship  and  is  able  to  dominate  the  greatest  misfortune  and  to  achieve  success  in  the  face 
of  the  most  discouraging  obstacles.  Such  a  discipline  is  hardly  likely  to  develop  the  softer 
virtues;  and,  as  the  young  Pizarro  received  no  care, — either  from  his  father,  who  was  a 
distinguished  colonel  under  El  Gran  Capitan,  or  from  his  mother,  a  humble  peasant, — as  he 
was  never  taught  to  read  or  to  write,  and  spent  his  boyhood  tending  swine,  it  is  not 
difficult  to  imagine  what  extraordinary  influences  must  have  moulded  his  character,  and 
transformed  the  swineherd  of  Trujillo  into  the  fearless  soldier  of  fortune,  known  to  history 
as  the  cruel,  rapacious,  and  perfidious,  though  consummately  daring.  Conqueror  of  Peru. 

The  first  news  of  Pizarro  as  an  adventurer  in  the  New  World  is  found  in  the  record  of 
a  disastrous  expedition  fitted  out  at  Hispaniola  for  the  purpose  of  colonization ;  a  few  years 
later  he  is  heard  from  in  connection  with  the  more  successful  undertaking  led  by  Balboa, 
with  whom  Pizarro  crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  when  that  celebrated  adventurer 
discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Up  to  that  time,  Pizarro,  who  was  then  fifty  years  of  age, 
had  won  neither  gold  nor  glory  as  a  reward  for  his  ambition,  hi  1^22,  an  expedition, 
which  had  been  sent  southward  by  the  governor  of  Panama,  returned  with  wonderful 
stories  of  the  wealth  and  grandeur  of  a.  kingdom  that  was  supposed  to  lie  behind  the 
great  range  of  the  Andes.  Pizarro  became  interested  and  communicated  his  enthusiasm 
to  Diego  de  Almagro,  an  adventurer  like  himself,  a  native  of  Castile,  and  a  foundling. 
These  two  enterprising  explorers  were  joined  by  a  third,  named  Hernando  de  Luque, 
a  priest,  who  furnished  most  of  the  funds  for  the  expedition  which  it  was  agreed  they 
would  undertake,  to  search  for  the  land  of  treasure.  After  great  reverses  and  his 
desertion  by  many  famished  followers  on  the  barren  Island  of  Gallo,  Pizarro  reached 


SPANISH  DISCOI/ERV  AND  INVASION  UNDER.  PIZARRO 


67 


Tumbes,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  where  he  found  a  populous 
settlement,  rich  in  temples  and  palaces  ornamented  with  gold  and  silver,  and  inhabited  by 
a  kind  and  hospitable  people.  The  natives  told  the  Spaniards  that  a  great  and  powerful 
prince  ruled  over  all  this  country,  whose  capital  lay  behind  the  mountains  and  was  a  city 
of  far  greater  wealth  and  splendor  than  anything  they  had  yet  seen.  Could  any  news  be 
more  welcome  to  the  little  band  of  adventurers  in  search  of  this  very  treasure?  After  cruising 
southward  past  the  present  city  of  Trujillo,  at  which  they  also  disembarked  for  a  short  stay, 
and  finding  everywhere  proofs  that  they  had  reached  the  shores  of  an  opulent  kingdom,  the 
expedition  turned  northward  again  toward  Panama;  for  Pizarro  realized  that  it  would  be 
impossible  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  such  a  country  with  a  mere  dozen  of  followers.  On 
their  way,  they  called  again  at  Tumbes,  where  a  native  boy,  named  Felipilio,  was  taken  on 
board  to  accompany  Pizarro  to  Panama,  so  that  he  might  learn  the  Spanish  language  and 
serve  as  interpreter  when  the  discoverers  should  return  to  his  country  to  conquer  it. 


KUINS   OF    AN    INCAS    F'ALACE. 


When  Pizarro  arrived  in  Panama,  he  found  the  governor  not  at  all  disposed  to  help 
him ;  but,  with  the  aid  of  his  faithful  comrades,  Almagro  and  Father  Luque,  he  was  pro- 
vided with  funds  to  go  to  Spain  and  plead  his  cause  with  the  king,  it  being  understood  that 


68 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE14^  PERU 


THE  ANDENES.  OR   ARTIFICIAL   TERRACES,  CULTIVATED   UNDER   THE   INCAS. 


if  he  succeeded  in  getting  the  royal  authorization  and  protection,  he  would  secure  the  office 
of  Adelantado  for  Almagro  and  that  of  Bishop  of  Tumbes  for  Father  Luque.     Pizarro  was 

well  received  at  the  Court 
of  Spain,  where  Cortes  had 
recently  arrived  to  present 
the  empire  of  Mexico  to  his 
royal  master.  The  Council 
of  the  hidies,  which  had 
charge  of  all  matters  relat- 
ing to  Spain's  possessions 
in  the  New  World,  gave 
him  a  grant  authorizing  him 
to  mal<e  discoveries  and 
conquests  in  Peru  for  two 
hundred  leagues  south- 
ward from  the  river  San- 
tiago, near  the  northern 
border  of  the  present  re- 
public of  Ecuador.  Pizarro 
received  the  rank  and  titles 
of  Governor  and  Captain-general  of  the  province,  and  the  offices  of  Adelantado  and  Chief 
Magistrate  for  life  with  a  large  salary;  he  was  also  made  a  Knight  of  Santiago  and  was  given 
permission  to  use  his  father's  coat-of-arms  with  symbols  of  his  own  conquest  added. 
Upon  his  return  to  Panama,  he  tried  to  explain  to  Almagro  the  reason  why  he  had  accepted 
all  the  high  offices  for  himself,  but  his  comrade  found  it  hard  to  forgive  what  he  considered 
an  injury  done  to  him  by  a  friend  he  had  trusted,  and  an  estrangement  followed,  which  was 
never  overcome,  especially  as  Pizarro's  brothers,  Hernando  and  Gonzalo,  who  accompanied 
him  back  from  Spain,  did  everything  to  widen  the  breach. 

In  January,  1^31,  Pizarro  and  his  followers  embarked  again  for  Peru.  Before  leaving 
Panama,  the  banners  of  the  company  and  the  royal  standard  of  Spain  were  consecrated  in 
the  Cathedral,  mass  was  performed,  and  tlie  sacrament  was  administered  to  every  soldier. 
The  expedition  consisted  of  only  two  hundred  men  and  twenty-seven  horses,  a  small  force 
for  so  ambitious  an  undertaking;  but  the  courageous  adventurer  had  come  to  believe  so 
thoroughly  in  the  destiny  which  held  in  store  for  him  the  glory  of  conquering  that  great 
kingdom,  of  whose  extent  and  riches  he  had  already  been  permitted  the  first  glimpse,  that 
no  power  on  earth  could  have  discouraged  him  in  his  enterprise;  he  was  full  of  eager 
enthusiasm  when  his  ships  sailed  out  of  the  harbor,  bound  for  Tumbes,  which  he 
considered  the  gateway  to  the  Peruvian  empire.  On  his  way,  he  made  brief  landings  at 
various  points,  including  the  island  of  Puna  in  the  Guayaquil  River,  a  few  leagues  north  of 
the  port  of  Tumbes  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil.    At  Puna  the  soldiers 


SPANISH  DISCOyERY  AND  INI/ASION  UNDER  PIZARRO 


69 


of  Spain  won  a  hard-fought  battle  over  the  fierce  natives,  during  wiiich,  the  Spanish 
chronicler  says:  "St.  Michael  was  seen  to  vanquish  Satan  in  mid-air."  Here  the  expedition 
awaited  reinforcements,  which  soon  afterward  arrived  in  two  ships  commanded  by 
Hernando  de  Soto,  and  consisted  of  a  hundred  volunteers  as  well  as  a  number  of  cavalry 
horses;  with  this  added  force,  Pizarro  proceeded  southward  to  Tumbes,  though  he  found 
that  recently  flourishing  city  entirely  depopulated  and  demolished — by  their  enemies  of 
Puna  it  was  said — and  he  was  obliged  to  look  for  another  site  for  his  colony.  He  sent 
De  Soto  with  troops  to  explore  the  foothills  of  the  Andes  while  he  himself  marched 
southward  along  the  plain  for  about  thirty  leagues,  until  he  came  to  a  rich  valley  watered 
by  several  streams,  which  offered  such  advantages  for  settlement  that  he  sent  for  his 
troops  to  come  on  from  Tumbes;  here  he  founded  the  first  Spanish  colony  in  Peru,  calling 
it  San  Miguel  in  honor  of  his  victory  at  Puna;  the  settlement  was  removed  later  to  the 
banks  of  the  Piura  River,  where  the  foundation  of  the  present  flourishing  city  of  Piura 
took  place.  During  his  march,  Pizarro  had  passed  thriving  Indian  settlements,  had  been 
hospitably  entertained  by  the  natives  and  had  learned  that  the  great  ruler,  in  whose 
dominions  he  was  travelling,  was  at  that  moment  only  ten  days'  journey  from  Piura.     He 


SEATS   CUT   IN  SOLID  STONE.  AT   KENKO,  NEAR   CI./CO. 


was  told  the  story  of  the  quarrel  between  Atahuallpa  and  Huascar  and  was  informed  that 
Atahuallpa's  army  had  successfully  invaded  Cuzco  and  taken  Huascar  prisoner:  on  that  very 


70 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


day  the  victorious  Inca  was  celebrating  his  triumph  in  his  camp  at  Cajamarca,  whither  lie 
had  gone  to  take  the  baths.     From  the  same  source,  Pizarro  learned  that  the  vanquished 

brother  had  been  im- 
prisoned at  Jauja,  where 
one  of  the  strongest 
fortresses  of  the  coun- 
try was  located.  All 
this  information  was 
welcome  to  the  Span- 
ish invader,  who  saw 
that  the  disunion  of  the 
empire  was  a  condition 
greatly  in  his  favor  in 
the  proposed  conquest; 
but  he  hoped,  with  all 
his  heart,  that  reinforce- 
ments would  come 
from  Panama,  as  his 
army  appeared  ridicu- 
lously small  to  attempt 
the  subjugation  of  a  rich 
and  powerful  monarch, 
whose  bodyguard  was 
composed  of  the  best 
and  bravest  of  his  war- 
riors, and  numbered 
thousands.  It  is  well 
said  by  the  author 
of  77?^'  Conquest  of 
Peru  that  "if  Pizarro 
had  stopped  to  calcu- 
late chances,  he  must 
inevitably  have  failed, 
as  the  odds  were  too 
great  to  be  combated  by  sober  reason."  But  sober  reason  is  very  apt  to  lack  the  element 
of  faith,  which  is  so  powerful  an  agency  in  the  conquest  of  empires — whether  national, 
social,  or  personal.  Pizarro  believed  that  he  was  destined  by  heaven  to  accomplish  this 
seemingly  impossible  task,  and  he  adopted  ways  and  means  which  cautious  reason  would 
have  condemned,  in  view  of  the  almost  certain  and  disastrous  consequences.  Probably  he 
was  inspired  by  Cortes's  capture  of  Montezuma  when  he  planned  his  attack  on  Atahuallpa; 


ANCIENT    BRIDGE   OF   SANTA   TERESA,  CUZCO. 


SPANISH  DISCOyERY  AND  INyASION  UNDER  PIZARRO  71 

but,  to  one  of  his  spirit  and  temperament,  the  means  to  the  end  could  hardly  have  failed, 
even  without  the  Mexican  Conqueror's  example,  which,  by  the  way,  he  did  not  worthily 
imitate,  as  Cortes  would  have  scorned  to  use  the  unsoldierly  tactics  that  Pizarro  employed 
in  the  capture  and  subsequent  murder  of  the  Inca. 

The  prospect  of  getting  reinforcements  from  Panama  appeared  less  and  less  hopeful  as 
the  months  passed,  until  finally  Pizarro  decided  to  start  on  his  daring  enterprise  with  only  the 
limited  force  then  at  his  command.  Leaving  fifty  soldiers  to  guard  the  colony,  he  set  out 
with  one  hundred  and  eighty  men,  including  sixty-seven  cavalry  troops,  to  attempt  a  conquest 
which  a  more  cautious  commander  would  have  undertaken  only  at  the  head  of  a  large  army. 

After  journeying  for  several  days  without  coming  within  sight  of  Cajamarca,  Pizarro 
sent  Hernando  de  Soto  to  reconnoitre,  and,  a  week  later,  was  delighted  to  see  his  comrade 
approaching  the  camp  in  company  with  a  personage  of  evident  rank,  who  was  attended  by 
a  considerable  retinue,  and  whom  De  Soto  presented  as  an  ambassador  from  the  Inca 
Atahuallpa.  This  distinguished  messenger  had  come  with  his  royal  master's  greeting  to  the 
strangers,  and  an  invitafion  for  them  to  visit  the  Emperor's  camp  at  Cajamarca.  Pizarro, 
through  his  interpreter,  Felipillo,  made  known  to  the  ambassador  his  appreciation  of  the 
Inca's  fine  courtesy;  at  the  same  time,  he  gave  strict  orders  that  as  long  as  the  ambassador 
remained  in  the  Spanish  camp  he  was  to  be  treated  with  all  the  respect  due  to  the 
representative  of  a  great  and  powerful  sovereign.  When  the  Peruvian  departed,  he  was 
charged  to  convey  the  compliments  of  Pizarro  to  his  royal  master  and  to  tell  him  that  the 
Spaniards  were  the  subjects  of  a  powerful  prince,  who  ruled  beyond  the  sea;  that  they  had 
heard  of  Atahuallpa's  prowess  and  had  come  to  pay  their  respects  to  His  Majesty  and  to 
offer  the  service  of  their  army  against  the  Inca's  enemies;  and  that  they  would  wait  upon 
the  great  monarch  with  the  least  possible  delay. 

Having  dismissed  the  Inca's  messenger,  Pizarro  resumed  his  march,  choosing  the  route 
which  he  had  been  advised  to  take  in  order  to  reach  Cajamarca  as  soon  as  possible. 
Embassies  from  the  Inca  continued  to  arrive  with  presents  of  gold,  silver  and  rich  vicufia 
cloths,  the  Spaniards  sending  in  return  ornaments  of  glass  and  other  articles  brought  from 
Europe  for  the  purpose.  As  they  ascended  the  slopes  of  the  great  Andes,  they  observed 
that,  instead  of  buildings  of  sun-dried  bricks,  such  as  were  seen  in  the  coast  valleys,  the 
temples  and  palaces  were  constructed  of  huge  stones,  taken  from  tlie  solid  rock,  and  so 
wonderfully  adjusted  that  not  a  knife  blade  could  be  inserted  between  them,  though  no 
mortar  was  used  in  setting  them. 

In  order  to  reach  Cajamarca,  it  was  necessary  for  Pizarro  and  his  men  to  cross  the 
cumbre,  or  summit  of  the  great  Andean  range,  that  rose  before  them  like  an  impassable 
barrier.  They  had  to  march  through  treacherous  defiles,  where  a  mere  handful  of  men  in 
ambush  could  destroy  a  whole  army,  and  the  experience  was  one  to  be  remembered  long 
afterward;  the  sudden  appearance  of  a  huge  fortress  high  up  on  the  mountain  side,  strong 
enough  to  defy  a  regiment  and  large  enough  to  shelter  an  army — the  precipices  that 
yawned  in  front  of  them  at  every  turn — the  intense  cold  and  rarity  of  the  atmosphere  in 


72 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE14^  PERU 


the  high  altitude — were  sources  of  constant  fear  and  discomfort.    But  the  Inca  permitted  the 
invaders  to  advance  witiiout  opposition;  indeed,  he  continued  to  send  embassies  to  them 

every  time  they  encamped 
on  the  way.  Was  it  an 
exaggerated  idea  of  their 
exalted  origin  and  power, 
or  absolute  confidence  in 
his  own  strength,  or  be- 
cause the  very  audacity 
of  Pizarro  was  incredible, 
that  Atahuallpa  permitted 
the  Spaniards  to  advance 
on  his  encampment,  when 
a  small  force  could  have 
prevented  their  crossing 
the  ciimbre  ?  Perhaps 
Atahuallpa  yielded  to  cu- 
riosity and  permitted  the 
Spaniard  to  visit  his  royal 
strongliold  in  order  that 
he  and  his  nobles  might 
study  the  rara  avis,  in- 
tending to  capture  the 
invaders  later,  by  sur- 
rounding them  with  his 
legions.  The  conquerors 
afterward  expressed  the 
opinion  that  the  Inca 
probably  wished  to  find 
out  all  about  tliem,  to 
have  them  explain  the 
use  of  their  weapons, 
etc.,  so  that  he  might 
profit  the  more  by  their  capture.  One  authority  says:  "Atahuallpa  was  very  wise  and 
discreet,  and,  although  without  enlightenment,  yet  a  friend  of  knowledge,  and  possessing 
a  subtle  mind." 

One  of  the  severest  tests  of  the  courage  of  Pizarro  came  when  he  led  his  little  band 
out  of  the  last  defile  of  the  mountains  and  saw,  from  the  eminence  on  which  they  stood, 
the  beautiful  valley  of  Cajamarca  spread  before  his  gaze,  radiant  in  the  flush  of  summer 
time,  with  broad  fields  showing  the  fruits  of  industrious  husbandry,  a  prosperous  little  city 


AN   INCAIC  STREET.  CUZCO. 


SPANISH  DISCOVERY  AND  INVASION  UNDER  PIZARRO  75 

nestling  just  below,  and  farther  away,  at  the  otlier  side  of  tlie  valley,  on  the  sloping 
hillsides,  the  encampment  of  the  Inca,  apparently  sheltering  a  mighty  host.  A  member  of 
that  bold  little  company  naively  relates:  "With  a  courageous  countenance,  after  having 
thoroughly  surveyed  the  scene,  we  descended  to  the  valley,  and  entered  Cajamarca."  One 
can  easily  imagine  that  behind  the  "courageous  countenance"  there  was  much  sinking 
of  the  heart,  as  the  invaders  made  their  way  down  the  mountain  sidel  While  they 
were  descending,  the  sky  became,  overcast,  and  the  sunlit  valley  took  on  a  gloomy  aspect. 
Ominous  clouds  obscured  the  surrounding  summits,  which  a  few  hours  before  had  glistened 
like  steel-armored  sentinels  under  the  rays  of  the  sun.  It  was  as  if  the  breath  of  an  unholy 
ambition  had  already  poisoned  the  air  and  the  approaching  spectre  of  crime  had  thrown  its 
awful  shadow  across  the  place  of  tragedy. 

Pizarro  and  his  band  entered  Cajamarca  on  the  afternoon  of  November  i^,  1^32.  They 
found  themselves  in  a  city  of  considerable  size,  apparently  the  home  of  about  ten  thousand 
people,  though,  as  the  Spaniards  rode  through  its  streets,  no  one  came  out  to  welcome  them, 
and  they  discovered  that  it  had  been  entirely  deserted  by  the  inhabitants,  "  in  order  to  give 
better  accommodation  to  the  distinguished  visitors  of  the  Inca,"  as  his  messengers  explained. 

Impatient  to  know  the  nature  of  the  reception  he  might  expect  from  Atahuallpa,  Pizarro 
had  no  sooner  entered  Cajamarca  than  he  sent  Hernando  de  Soto  and  his  brother,  Hernando 
Pizarro,  to  salute  the  Inca  and  to  invite  him  to  dine  on  the  following  day,  at  the  same  time 
begging  that  his  majesty  would  let  them  know  where  they  were  to  make  their  headquarters. 
The  Spanish  envoys  were  accompanied  by  a  bodyguard  of  cavalry  and  made  their  appear- 
ance at  the  Inca's  camp  in  a  sumptuous  manner,  dressed  in  splendid  armor  and  carrying 
themselves  with  the  arrogance  and  grace  characteristic  of  the  Castilian.  They  found  the 
sovereign  in  the  courtyard  of  his  royal  quarters,  where  he  received  them  with  such  absence 
of  demonstration  tliat  they  were  disconcerted  and  at  a  loss  to  understand  his  extraordinary 
attitude.  They  rode  up  slowly  until  within  a  few  feet  of  the  Inca,  when,  after  making  a 
respectful  salute,  Hernando  Pizarro  repeated  his  brother's  message.  Atahuallpa  heard  it 
without  giving  the  least  sign  of  interest,  without  even  a  change  of  expression;  the  only 
response  came  from  one  of  his  nobles,  in  the  single  word  "Ari,"  which  signified  "  It  is 
well."  It  was  an  embarrassing  moment  and  left  Pizarro's  ambassadors  totally  ignorant  of 
the  Inca's  intentions;  but  Hernando  Pizarro  was  not  of  a  disposition  to  accept  such  a 
situation  as  final,  and  he  again  addressed  the  Indian  sovereign,  requesting  him  to  speak  to 
them  himself,  explaining  that  he  was  Pizarro's  brother  and  had  come  to  learn  from  the 
Inca's  own  lips  what  was  his  royal  pleasure.  At  this,  Atahuallpa  deigned  to  answer,  with  a 
smile,  that  he  was  keeping  a  fast,  which  would  end  the  following  morning,  when  he  would 
be  pleased  to  visit  Pizarro;  that,  in  the  meantime,  his  guests  were  to  occupy  the  royal 
tambo,  or  inn,  in  the  great  square  of  the  city,  "except  the  Hall  of  the  Serpent,  in  the  midst," 
which  he  reserved  for  his  own  use. 

During  their  interview  with  Atahuallpa,  the  Spaniards  had  an  excellent  opportunity  to 
observe  the  Inca,  who  was  seated  on  a  cushion  in  the  midst  of  his  nobles  and  the  princesses 


74 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


of  the  royal  household.  The  monarch,  who  was  thirty  years  of  age,  was  of  grave  and 
kingly  bearing,  and  had  handsome,  well-cut  features ;  he  wore  a  simpler  costume  than  his 
courtiers,  who  were  gorgeous  in  gayly  ornamented  attire;  his  crown  was  the  crimson 
masca  paicha,  which  he  had  assumed  with  the  sovereignty  of  Cuzco,  after  his  brother 
Huascar's  defeat.  The  appearance  of  the  Inca,  his  splendid  court,  his  troops  numbering 
fifty  thousand  men,  the  evidences  of  great  wealth,  seen  even  in  the  large  golden  vessels 
from  which  the  Spaniards  were  invited  to  drink  the  chicha  offered  by  Atahuallpa'S  order — 
everything  impressed  Pizarro's  envoys  with  the  hopelessness  of  their  scheme  of  conquest, 
and  they  returned  to  their  chief  with  gloomy  faces. 

But  Pizarro  refused  to  see,  think  or  hear  of  anything  but  success,  and  he  trampled 
down  every  rising  fear  by  the  sheer  force  of  his  own  confidence  and  determination;  that 
very  night  he  unfolded  his  bold  plan  of  action — to  make  a  sudden  attack  and  seize  the  Inca 
in  the  midst  of  his  troops.  Once  in  possession  of  the  monarch,  Pizarro  knew  that  he 
could  dictate  his  own  terms,  for  he  had  not  been  slow  to  recognize  the  sacred  character  of 
the  worship  rendered  by  the  Indians  to  their  emperor  of  celestial  origin.  Perhaps  he  had 
even  calculated  on  the  paralyzing  effect  such  an  audacious  and  sacrilegious  act  as  the  seizure 
of  the  Inca  would  have  on  a  people  completely  held  under  the  spell  of  their  sovereign's 
great  and  transcendent  glory.  But  it  is  hardly  to  be  supposed  that  he  could  have  foreseen 
their  utter  prostration  in  the  face  of  the  calamity  he  was  preparing  to  visit  upon  them  I 


ENTRANCE   TO  AN   INCAIC    HOUSE. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE   CONQUEST   OF   PERU 

"T^HE  Conquest  of  Peru  was  not  undertaken  with- 
out  a  solemn  appeal  to  heaven,  a  ceremony 

which  formed  the   prelude   to   all  enterprises 

.^tk.  ^  v49:^^!JHffiL   $'^[1^^    in  those  days,  of  whatever  character  or  pur- 
^•A^  "  ^'v^HH   ^f  A     **  Iw  pose.    Mass  was  performed  by  the  ecclesiastic, 

Vicente  de  Valverde,  a  Dominican  friar,  who 
had  accompanied  the  expedition,  and  whose 
share  in  the  events  of  the  memorable  day  upon 
which  they  were  now  entering  is  only  to  be 
excused  on  the  score  of  over-passionate  zeal. 
During  the  religious  service,  the  priest  and  his 
assistants  invoked  the  divine  aid  in  behalf  of 
the  soldiers  of  the  Cross  who  were  fighting 
to  establish  the  Christian  faith;  and  Exsurge, 
Domine  was  chanted  with  all  the  enthusiasm 
that  the  most  devoted  band  of  Crusaders  would  have  shown  on  the  eve  of  a  battle  with 
the  Moors;  the  heritage  of  blood  is  strong,  and  in  the  exaltation  of  that  moment,  it  is  certain 
that  the  baser  motives  of  the  premeditated  onslaught  were  submerged  under  a  tide  of 
religious  emotions.  But  it  is  doubtful  whether  Pizarro  allowed  the  religious  side  of  the 
campaign  to  occupy  his  mind  any  further  than  was  required  by  the  temperament  and  spirit 
of  his  followers;  he  knew  his  men,  and  governed  them  through  their  strongest  impulses, 
which  he  could  control  only  by  apparent  sympathy. 

Nothing  was  left  undone  in  the  preparations  for  capturing  the  Inca.  Cavalry  and 
infantry  were  stationed  in  great  halls  or  barracks  that  opened  on  to  the  plaza  through  wide 
doors,  which  were  to  remain  closed  until  a  given  signal.  The  confusing  effect  of  a  sudden 
surprise  and  unaccustomed  sights  and  sounds  had  been  carefully  studied  by  Pizarro,  who 
had  two  small  pieces  of  ordnance  placed  in  the  fortress,  and  all  the  horses  adorned  with 

77 


COAT-OF-ARMS  OF  PIZARRO  GRANTED  BY  CHARLES  V. 
IN  HONOR  OF  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  PERU. 


78  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

bells  on  their  breastplates.  It  was  understood  that  on  the  firing  of  the  first  gun,  the  whole 
army  should  rush  into  the  plaza  with  their  battle-cry:  "Santiago,  and  at  them!"  and,  after 
overpowering  and  killing  the  Inca's  guard,  they  were  to  capture  the  emperor  himself  and 
carry  him  to  Pizarro's  quarters. 

As  if  to  further  the  treacherous  plan  of  Pizarro,  the  Inca  sent  his  ambassador  to  say 
that  he  would  leave  the  greater  part  of  his  army  behind  and  would  enter  Cajamarca  without 
arms.  A  little  before  sunset  the  royal  procession  began  to  enter  the  gates  of  the  city.  First 
came  the  army  of  menials  who  were  employed  to  clear  the  pathway  of  all  obstacles,  as 
was  always  done  in  the  royal  progresses  which  the  Inca  was  accustomed  to  make  through- 
out his  kingdom;  following  these  came  the  heralds  announcing  the  approach  of  their 
sovereign,  the  nobles  and  princes  of  the  blood  royal,  and  lastly  the  Inca,  surrounded  by  his 
bodyguard  and  a  few  of  his  soldiers,  all  unarmed.  The  royal  palanquin  was  lined  with  the 
rich  plumes  of  tropical  birds  and  studded  with  plates  of  gold  and  silver;  the  monarch, 
seated  on  a  throne  of  solid  gold,  was  magnificently  attired,  and  wore  a  collar  of  very  large 
and  brilliant  emeralds. 

As  the  great  procession  entered  the  plaza  of  Cajamarca  and  divided  into  two  ranks 
to  allow  the  royal  retinue  to  pass  between,  the  Inca  observed  that  not  a  Spaniard  was  to  be 
seen,  and  inquired  what  had  become  of  them.  At  this  moment  Father  Valverde  stepped 
into  the  square,  with  a  crucifix  in  one  hand  and  a  Bible  in  the  other,  and  approaching  the 
Inca,  told  him  that  he  was  there  by  order  of  his  commander  to  expound  to  him  the  true 
faith,  for  which  purpose  the  Spaniards  had  come  to  his  country.  He  then  explained  to 
Atahuallpa  the  basis  of  the  Christian  faith,  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  the  origin  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  hierarchy,  telling  him  that  the  pope  had  given  the  Spanish  sovereign 
the  right  to  conquer  and  convert  the  natives  of  the  western  hemisphere,  and  that  Pizarro 
had  arrived  to  carry  out  this  mission;  he  concluded  by  beseeching  the  Inca  to  embrace 
Christianity  and  acknowledge  himself  a  vassal  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  who  would,  in 
that  case,  aid  and  protect  him.  Atahuallpa  listened  to  Valverde's  harangue  as  interpreted  by 
Felipillo,  at  first  showing  only  curiosity,  then  scorn  and,  finally,  fierce  indignation,  as  the 
import  of  its  meaning  dawned  upon  him.  His  brow  darkened  with  anger  when  he  learned 
that  he  was  asked  to  become  the  vassal  of  another,  and  he  exclaimed :  "  I  am  the  greatest 
prince  on  earth,  and  will  be  vassal  to  none ;  as  for  the  Pope  of  whom  you  speak,  he  cannot 
give  away  countries  which  do  not  belong  to  him ;  and  as  your  God  was  put  to  death  by  the 
human  beings  he  created,  I  will  not  have  him  in  exchange  for  mine,  who  lives  there  in 
the  heavens  and  watches  over  his  children  1  Where  did  you  learn  these  things?"  Valverde 
handed  him  the  Bible,  which  the  monarch  looked  at  as  nothing  to  be  admired,  either  in 
material  or  appearance ;  he  threw  it  on  the  ground  in  disgust,  and  told  the  priest  to  inform 
his  companions  that  they  would  be  called  to  account  for  all  the  evil  they  had  done  in 
his  dominions. 

The  Inca  was  about  to  give  a  royal  command  to  his  messengers,  when  Valverde, 
scandalized  by  the  heathen's  contempt  for  the  sacred  volume,  and  realizing  that  the  effort 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  PERU 


79 


to  convert  Atahuallpa  had  resulted  only  in  incensing  the  Inca  so  that  the  lives  of  the 
Spaniards  were  in  imminent  danger,  called  out  to  Pizarro  to  "waste  no  more  breath  on 
the  heathen  reprobate," 
exclaiming  with  all  the 
fervor  of  the  frenzied 
fanatic  :  Salid  a  el — que 
j'O  OS  absiiclvo!  "Take 
him, — 1  absolve  you  alll" 

Valverde  thus  gave 
the  first  signal  of  attack ; 
Pizarro  then  waved  a 
wiiite  kerchief  and  the 
gun  boomed  its  fateful 
command  from  the  fort- 
ress. In  an  instant  the 
Spaniards  poured  into  the 
plaza,  yelling  their  battle- 
cry,  while  the  guns  kept 
up  a  deafening  noise; 
the  horses  plunged  into 
the  terror-stricken  ranks 
of  the  hica's  attend- 
ants, trampling  hundreds 
under  their  iron  hoofs; 
both  infantry  and  cavalry 
wrought  havoc  with  their 
swords,  and  the  plaza — a 
few  minutes  before  bril- 
liant with  the  splendor 
and  gaiety  of  a  royal 
train,  come  to  honor  the 
stranger  and  accept  his 
proffered  hospitality — 
became  a  scene  of  car- 
nage and  death,  a  horrible  spectacle,  though  welcome  enough  to  the  treacherous  host, 
whose  invitation  had  been  given  with  this  very  object  in  view. 

it  is  not  strange  that  panic  seized  the  followers  of  Atahuallpa  when  the  Spaniards  made 
their  murderous  onslaught,  unaccustomed  as  the  Indians  were  to  the  sound  and  smoke  of 
the  cannon,  the  sight  of  rearing,  prancing  steeds,  and  the  glitter  of  the  long,  sharp  swords, 
which  the  bearded  "palefaces"  used  with  such  deadly  effect.    The  Inca's  nobles  pressed 


FRANCISCO   PIZARRO.  CONQUEROR   OF   PERU  AND  FOUNDER  OF  LIMA. 


8o  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

closely  around  the  royal  litter,  sheltering  their  beloved  sovereign  until  cut  down  by  the 
assailants,  when  their  places  were  immediately  filled  by  others.  His  faithful  attendants 
sought  to  force  back  the  cavaliers  by  clinging  to  their  saddles  and  trying  to  unhorse  them, 
never  loosening  their  grip  until  the  cruel  blade  of  the  Spaniard  put  an  end  to  their  pitiful 
efforts.  So  persistently  did  the  brave  nobles  interpose  themselves  between  the  enemy  and 
the  sacred  person  of  their  sovereign  that  it  seemed  impossible  for  Pizarro's  men  to  secure 
their  prize;  and  some  of  his  officers  would  have  taken  the  Inca's  life  to  prevent  his  eluding 
them,  had  it  not  been  for  Pizarro's  command,  "Let  no  one  harm  the  Inca  on  peril  of  his 
life!"  Finally,  as  the  fierce  struggle  closed  in  around  the  royal  palanquin,  and  one  after 
another  of  those  who  bore  it  aloft  was  slain,  it  was  overturned,  the  monarch  being  saved 
from  a  fall  by  Pizarro,  who  caught  him  in  his  arms. 

What  irony  of  fate!  The  stranger  whom  Atahuallpa  had  permitted  to  come  to  the 
very  threshold  of  his  royal  palace,  without  offering  any  hindrance;  who  had  declared  his 
mission  to  be  one  of  peace,  and  had  offered  the  service  of  his  arms  against  the  royal 
enemies;  who  had  invited  the  Inca  to  eat  at  his  table,  a  courtesy  to  which  the  monarch 
responded  in  a  truly  royal  spirit  by  presenting  himself  unarmed  to  accept  the  hospitality; — 
this  stranger  had  first  insulted  him  through  the  mouth  of  his  priest;  had  then  attacked  the 
invited  guest,  who  was  entirely  defenceless;  had  turned  all  the  force  of  unfamiliar  arms 
against  a  panic-stricken  multitude  and  needlessly  butchered  them ;  and,  finally,  had  made 
the  monarch  his  prisoner  by  catching  him  in  his  arms,  as  a  Spaniard's  sword  pierced  the 
heart  of  the  monarch's  last  faithful  protector! 

The  sequel  to  the  Inca's  capture  is  well  known.  Apparently,  the  unfortunate  victim 
did  not  at  first  comprehend  what  had  passed,  and  it  is  related  by  one  of  the  conquerors 
that,  when  conveyed  to  the  royal  tambo,  where  he  dined  with  Pizarro  the  evening  of  the 
tragedy,  according  to  his  promise,  the  prisoner  even  congratulated  his  captor  on  the  clever- 
ness with  which  his  royal  person  had  been  seized  in  the  midst  of  his  troops.  That  the 
disappearance  of  their  sovereign  within  the  Spanish  quarters  should  have  sufficed  to  effect 
the  conquest  of  his  empire,  is  easily  explained  in  the  very  nature  of  his  authority,  which 
was  so  absolute  that  it  governed  the  spirit  as  well  as  the  mind  and  person  of  every  creature 
in  his  realm.  The  Inca  a  prisoner?  It  was  as  if  Deity  had  condescended  to  permit  his 
omnipotence  to  be  dominated;  but  how,  then,  could  the  puny  effort  of  mere  mortals  avail, 
where  the  Son  of  the  Sun  himself  had  not  resisted?  When  his  soldiers  learned  that  their 
leader  no  longer  commanded  them,  the  effect  of  such  an  incomprehensible,  incredible,  and 
to  them,  impossible,  situation  overwhelmed  them  with  awe  for  the  white  man,  whom  they 
looked  upon  as  superhuman  and  invincible. 

The  great  majority  of  the  royal  army  was  still  on  the  march  from  Cuzco  at  the  time  of 
Atahuallpa's  capture ;  and  not  only  was  there  no  immediate  possibility  of  his  rescue,  but 
there  was  great  fear  in  the  Inca's  mind  lest  his  half-brother,  Huascar,  should  escape  from 
prison  and  ascend  the  throne  of  Cuzco.  He  felt  the  necessity  of  obtaining  his  freedom  at 
all  costs  and  as  speedily  as  possible.    The  astute  monarch  had  not  been  slow  to  observe 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  PERU 


8i 


that  the  sight  of  gold  produced  a  marvellous  effect  on  the  Spaniards,  whose  eyes  glistened 
with  greed  when  some  of  their  party,  sent  to  pillage  the  royal  encampment,  returned  with 
gold  and  silver  plate,  and  precious  ornaments  taken  from  the  bodies  of  the  nobles  who  had 
perished  in  the  massacre. 

The  Inca  took  the  first  opportunity  to  appeal  to  Pizarro's  ruling  passion  by  promising 
the  Conqueror  that  if  he  would  give  him  his  freedom  the  Spaniards  should  have  all  the 
gold  they  wanted.  Standing  up  in  his  prison  and  marking  a  place  on  the  wall  as  high  as  he 
could  reach,  he  said  that  he  would  fill  the  room  up  to  that  height  with  gold,  and  the 
adjoining  room  he  would  fill  twice  with  silver  as  the 
price  of  his  ransom.  The  brother  of  the  Conqueror 
relates  in  his  memoirs  that  the  apartment  to  be  filled 
with  gold  was  thirty-five  feet  long  by  eighteen  feet 
wide!  Pizarro  accepted  Atahuallpa's  offer,  though 
there  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  he  held  himself  in 
any  way  bound  to  fulfil  his  part  of  the  contract. 
Perfidious  to  the  last  degree  in  every  relation  of  his 
life,  it  is  not  strange  that  he  should  have  shown 
toward  a  captive  and  a  heathen  the  same  disregard 
for  his  word  as  appeared  in  his  dealings  with  his 
best  friends.  Meantime  lie  set  to  work  assiduously, 
with  the  help  of  Father  Valverde,  to  prove  to  Ata- 
huallpa  that  the  faith  of  the  Spaniards  was  the  only 
true  faith;  and  his  unanswerable  argument  was  that 
the  Spaniards'  God  had  brought  victory  to  his  chil- 
dren, while  the  Inca's  deity  had  deserted  his  own 
in  their  hour  of  need; — which  the  Inca  found  it 
impossible  to  deny. 

While  the  Inca's  couriers  were  collecting  the 
royal  treasure  from  the  temples  and  palaces  of 
Tahuantinsuyo  and  despatching  it  from  the  four 
quarters  of  the  empire  to  Cajamarca,  the  imprisoned 
monarch  continued  to  live  in  the  Spanish  quarters, 

free  to  go  about  in  the  apartments  that  had  been  reserved  for  his  use,  and  treated  with  the 
respect  due  to  his  rank,  though  always  under  strict  surveillance.  He  was  allowed  the  society 
of  his  wives,  and  could  receive  visits  from  his  nobles  who  came  daily  to  bring  presents  and 
to  offer  condolence.  Through  these  messengers  he  learned  that  Huascar  was  plotting  to 
escape  from  captivity  and  secure  the  throne,  and  that  he  had  sent  word  to  the  Spaniards 
promising  to  raise  a  greater  ransom  than  Atahuallpa  could  obtain,  who  had  never  been  in 
Cuzco  and  knew  nothing  of  its  wealth.  These  reports  both  angered  and  alarmed  the  Inca, 
who  knew  very  well  that  his  half-brother's  claim  to  the  throne  would  meet  with  a  powerful 


GENEALOGY  OF  FRANCISCO  PIZARRO. 
CONQUEROR  OF   PERU. 


82  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

support  among  his  former  subjects  if  Huascar  should  gain  his  freedom,  and  that  such  an 
event  would  of  itself  suffice  to  convince  the  whole  nation  that  Huascar  was  favored  by 
their  deity,  and  that  Atahuallpa's  captivity  was  the  just  punishment  of  a  usurper.  This 
condition  of  affairs  was  eminently  satisfactory  to  Pizarro,  who  saw  that  whichever  sovereign 
he  chose  to  support  must  be  in  reality  his  vassal,  and  that  between  the  two  he  was  likely 
to  collect  into  his  coffers  all  the  treasures  of  Peru. 

Although  the  historians  of  the  Conquest  generally  agree  that  Huascar  met  a  violent 
death  by  the  secret  orders  of  his  brother,  the  chroniclers  of  that  time  were,  as  a  rule,  not 
impartial  in  their  statements,  and  it  is  known  only  that  Huascar  was  assassinated, — by 
whose  order  is  not  certain.  Pizarro  was  enraged  when  he  heard  of  Huascar's  death 
and  immediately  charged  Atahuallpa  with  the  crime.  A  stronger  guard  was  placed  to 
watch  the  Inca's  apartments  and  he  was  under  constant  suspicion.  Pizarro  held  him 
responsible  also  for  delays  in  the  arrival  of  the  royal  treasure,  until  the  Inca,  to  prove 
his  good  faith,  offered  to  provide  safe-conduct  to  any  officers  the  Spaniards  might  send 
to  superintend  its  collection  and  transport.  Emissaries  of  Pizarro  were  despatched  to 
Pachacamac  and  Cuzco,  which  Atahuallpa  indicated  as  the  chief  repositories  of  wealth, 
though  the  messenger  found  Pachacamac  already  dismantled  of  its  treasures  when  he 
arrived;  what  became  of  its  gold  has  never  been  learned.  The  soldiers  commissioned 
to  collect  the  treasures  of  Cuzco  returned  with  marvellous  stories  of  its  wealth  and  mag- 
nificence. They  found  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  "literally  covered  with  plates  of  gold," 
which  they  stripped  from  its  sacred  walls  in  such  a  frenzy  of  avarice  that  the  natives 
were  disgusted  beyond  measure.  The  historian  Herrera  says  they  secured  seven  hundred 
gold  plates,  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  besides  other  rich  ornaments,  though  they 
did  not  accomplish  their  mission  so  successfully  as  they  would  have  done  had  they  been 
less  brutal  and  rapacious  in  their  conduct. 

Pizarro  would  have  liked  to  go  on  to  Cuzco  himself  and  secure  possession  of  the 
Imperial  capital;  but,  as  the  reinforcements  that  Almagro  was  to  bring  from  Panama  had 
not  arrived,  he  feared  to  undertake  such  a  journey,  protected  only  by  a  small  force, 
especially  as  the  safe-keeping  of  the  Inca  would  require  a  powerful  guard  when  passing 
through  the  heart  of  his  populous  dominions.  While  the  emissaries  were  on  their  way  to 
get  the  Inca's  treasure,  Almagro  reached  Cajamarca  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  men  and 
fifty  horses,  besides  plenty  of  ammunition ;  and  Pizarro  at  once  began  to  lay  his  plans  for 
the  proposed  march  to  Cuzco.  Meanwhile  the  pile  of  gold  was  rapidly  increasing,  and 
though  it  did  not  reach  the  promised  height,  it  amounted,  in  all,  to  more  than  fifteen  million 
dollars  in  value,  and  was  the  largest  ransom  that  had  ever  been  paid  by  a  sovereign  captive. 
In  spite  of  the  impatience  of  his  jailers,  Atahuallpa  had  accomplished  wonders  in  the  prompt 
collection  of  such  a  vast  treasure,  brought  from  long  distances,  over  mountains  and  across 
rivers,  by  the  most  primitive  method  of  transport.  He  was  beginning  to  feel  very  happy 
in  his  fancied  security,  and  looked  forward  to  completing  his  ransom  without  the  slightest 
difficulty,  when  events  occurred,  or  were  reported  to  have  occurred,  which  gave  Pizarro  an 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  PERU 


83 


excuse  to  claim  the  ransom  without  releasing  his  prisoner, — indeed,  while  condemning  him 
to  a  cruel  death. 

As  the  magnificent  treasure  of  gold  and  silver  grew  before  the  eyes  of  the  Conquerors, 
their  avarice  became  too  strong  to  be  controlled  by  any  sentiment  of  justice  or  consideration, 
and  they  refused  to  wait  longer  for  a  division  of  the  spoils ;  they  urged  many  reasons  why 
the  gold  should  be  melted  down  and  divided  without  further  delay,  and  at  last  Pizarro  gave 
the  necessary  orders.  It  was  agreed  that  some  rare  and  beautiful  vases,  untensils  of  the 
temples,  ornaments,  and  curious  imitations  of  plants  and  animals,  should  be  sent,  intact,  as 


CA.IAMARCA,  WHERE   ATAHUALLPA   WAS  SEIZED  AND  EXECUTED  BY   PIZARROS  ORDER. 


part  of  the  royal  fifth,  to  the  Spahish  sovereign.  When  the  division  of  the  prize  was  made, 
Pizarro  kept  the  Inca's  gold  throne,  and  became  the  possessor  of  nearly  a  million  dollars  as 
his  share  of  the  treasure.  His  brother  received  one-fourth  of  this  amount  and  Hernando 
de  Soto  much  less. 

When  the  Inca  saw  that  the  price  of  his  ransom  had  been  seized  and  divided  among 
his  captors  he  very  naturally  demanded  his  freedom.  But  Pizarro  placed  expediency  far 
above  justice,  and  he  had  no  intention  of  releasing  the  captive.  On  the  other  hand,  he  was 
anxious  to  get  on  to  Cuzco.     He  did  not  want  to  be  burdened  with  the  care  of  the  royal 


84  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEPV  PERU 

prisoner,  if  it  could  be  avoided.  What  was  to  be  done  ?  To  one  of  Pizarro's  character,  the 
end  in  view  was  of  so  much  greater  importance  than  the  means  by  which  he  gained  it,  that 
it  is  not  lil<ely  lie  would  have  found  difficulty  in  securing  a  pretext  for  the  execution  of 
Atahuallpa,  if  necessary.  But,  again  good  fortune  brought  to  his  hand  the  weapon  for  his 
destructive  purpose,  in  the  form  of  rumors  to  the  effect  that  the  friends  of  Atahuallpa  were 
planning  an  attack  on  the  Spaniards,  and  that  a  large  force  was  encamped  only  a  hundred 
miles  from  the  city,  ready  to  march  on  them,  seize  their  gold  and  carry  off  the  Inca.  The 
unfortunate  prisoner  was  at  once  charged  with  being  the  author  of  the  plot,  which  probably 
originated  in  Pizarro's  own  fertile  brain.  There  was  a  vehement  demand  for  his  execution. 
Pizarro  appeared  unwilling  to  take  such  extreme  measures  and  sent  Hernando  de  Soto — 
Atahuallpa's  best  friend  in  the  camp — at  the  head  of  an  expedition  to  find  out  the  truth 
about  the  rumored  uprising.  While  De  Soto  was  absent,  Pizarro  "  consented  to  listen  to  the 
importunities  of  his  soldiers,"  held  a  trial  in  which  the  Inca  was  proved  guilty  of  having 
usurped  the  throne;  of  assassinating  his  brother;  of  fraud,  idolatry,  polygamy,  and,  finally, 
of  attempting  to  excite  an  insurrection  against  the  Spaniards.  He  was  condemned  to  be 
burnt  to  death  that  very  night  in  the  plaza;  but,  in  case  that  he  embraced  the  Christian 
religion  and  was  baptized,  his  sentence  would  be  commuted  to  death  by  strangulation. 

The  annals  of  crime  furnish  no  more  odious  example  of  heartless  cruelty  than  is  shown 
in  Pizarro's  treatment  of  the  Inca  sovereign.  Not  in  a  single  instance  did  the  Conqueror 
keep  faith  with  the  Indian  emperor,  whom  he  seized  by  fraud,  persecuted  on  the  flimsiest 
pretexts,  and  murdered  without  a  shred  of  evidence  against  the  condemned.  Is  it  any 
wonder  that  when  the  news  of  the  verdict  was  conveyed  to  Atahuallpa  he  was  over- 
whelmed by  the  horror  of  it,  and  exclaimed :  "  What  have  I  done  that  I  should  meet  with 
such  a  fate?"  It  is  said  that  Pizarro  was  visibly  affected  when  the  doomed  prince  turned 
to  him,  and  said:  "And  from  your  hands,  too — you,  who  have  met  with  friendship  and 
kindness  from  my  people,  with  whom  I  have  shared  my  treasures,  who  have  received 
nothing  but  benefits  from  my  hands  1 "  But  however  Pizarro  may  have  been  affected,  he 
did  not  allow  any  softer  impulse  to  sway  him  from  inflicting  death  by  the  garrote  on  the 
innocent  victim  of  his  ambition. 

Two  hours  after  sunset  on  the  29th  of  August,  1^33,  the  emperor  of  the  Incas  was  led 
out,  chained  hand  and  foot,  into  the  plaza  which  he  had  entered  a  few  months  before  as  the 
proud  and  powerful  representative  of  a  noble  dynasty.  And  the  mighty  change  had  been 
wrought  entirely  through  his  too  friendly  protection  of  a  band  of  invaders,  his  too  princely 
welcome  to  a  treacherous  chief,  and  his  too  lavish  gifts  to  an  unscrupulous  enemy.  The 
ceremony  of  baptism  was  performed  by  Father  Valverde,  as  the  Inca  had  consented  to 
embrace  Christianity  rather  than  be  burned  at  the  stake.  It  is  related  that  Atahuallpa 
implored  Pizarro  to  take  compassion  on  his  young  children  and  protect  them,  after  which 
he  resigned  himself  to  his  fate  and  met  death  without  giving  a  sign.  The  official  obsequies 
were  performed  the  following  day.  Father  Valverde  reading  the  service  of  the  dead,  while 
Pizarro  and  the  principal  cavaliers  attended  in  deep  mourning. 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  PERU 


8? 


The  execution  of  Atahuallpa  did  not  take  place  any  too  soon,  so  far  as  Pizarro's  designs 
were  concerned,  for  Hernando  de  Soto  returned  to  Cajamarca  a  couple  of  days  later  with  the 
news  that  the  whole  story  of  an  uprising  was  a  canard  and  Atahuallpa  was  innocent  I    Great 


PIZARRO  ON   THE   ISLAND  OF  GALLO.      FROM  A   PAINTING   BY  JUAN  O.  LEPIANl. 


was  tiie  sorrow  and  indignation  of  De  Soto  to  learn  that  the  Inca  had  been  executed;  for 
this  brave  cavalier  was  a  friend  of  the  unhappy  monarch  and  had  shielded  him  on  more 
than  one  occasion  when  the  fierce  temper  of  the  soldiers  threatened  him  with  harm. 
Pizarro  quailed  before  the  noble  spirit  of  his  braver  and  better  comrade,  and  sought  to 
throw  the  blame  on  Valverde,  who  in  turn  repudiated  all  share  of  responsibility  in  the 
shameful  business,  saying  he  had  acted  only  as  Pizarro's  chaplain.  It  was  evident  that  no 
one  cared  to  father  the  fraud  by  which,  under  the  name  of  justice,  the  Inca's  death  had 
been  accomplished. 

The  execution  of  Atahuallpa  completed  the  Conquest  of  Peru.  The  sovereignty  of  the 
Inca  emperor  had  been  too  absolute  for  its  own  well-being,  and  in  the  hour  of  peril, 
the  humble  subjects,  who  had  responded  with  such  perfect  obedience  to  the  will  of  an 
autocrat,  were  powerless  to  move  without  his  guiding  finger,  possessing  in  themselves 
neither  initiative  nor  self-reliance,  qualities  that  thrive  only  in  the  free  air  of  independence, 
under  the  sunlight  of  hope.  That  the  despotism  of  the  Incas  was  a  mighty  power, 
exercised  with  genius  and  worthiness,  cannot  be  denied;  industry  was  the  basis  of  its 


86 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


FBaNCISCO   PI2ARR0 


NICOLAS'  DC   RIBERA 


-%ffir" 


i::{j::mp> 


CARClA  m  SALCfDO 


greatness,  and  protection  the  keynote  to  its  prosperity;  every  subject  of  tlie  Children  of  the 
Sun  must  earn  his  bread  by  honest  labor,  though  he  was  always  sure  of  being  fed.  But 
the  very  fact  that  such  a  despotism  could  be  annihilated  by  a  mere  handful  of  adventurers, 
and  that,  within  the  space  of  a  few  months,  its  institutions  could  fall  to  pieces  and  its 
people  be  made  slaves  to  this  band  of  invaders  whom  they  outnumbered  by  millions, 
proves  that  it  was  not  a  system  strong  enough  to  hold  its  own  in  the  progress  of  nations. 
One  cannot  help  regretting,  however,  that  such  a  flourishing  empire  was  not  permitted  to 
fulfil  its  own  destiny;   perhaps  it  might  have  developed,  through  the  refining  influence 

of  the  national  ideals,  from  an  absolute 
theocracy  to  a  more  liberal  form  of  gov- 
ernment. 

With  the  overthrow  of  the  Incas,  the 
land  that  had  bloomed  perennially  with 
the  fruits  of  husbandry  became  a  scene 
of  anarchy  and  a  neglected  waste;  the 
highroads,  instead  of  presenting  a  pleas- 
ant spectacle  in  groups  of  contented  farm 
laborer^  on  their  way  to  fulfil  the  daily 
tasks  tliat  were  to  bring  them  both  bodily 
and  spiritual  reward,  were  thronged  with 
heavy-hearted,  over-worked,  and  poorly 
fed  slaves. 

As  soon  as  the  obstacle  of  Atahuallpa's 
presence  was  removed,  Pizarro  and  his 
followers  set  out  for  Cuzco,  marking  their 
progress  by  the  demolition  of  Inca  tem- 
ples along  the  route,  the  seizure  of 
treasure,  and  all  the  outrages  which  an 
unrestrained  soldiery  of  brutal  instincts 
will  commit  under  such  circumstances. 
Everywhere  the  emblems  of  the  Sun 
worship  were  replaced  by  images  of  the 
Virgin  and  Child,  and  the  few  efforts  at 
resistance  that  were  made  by  the  terror- 
stricken  natives  were  easily  overcome 
by  the  soldiers  of  the  Cross.  An  up- 
rising of  some  importance  took  place 
near  Jauja,  under  the  command  of  the  Inca's  favorite  general,  but  it  was  quelled  and  the 
leader  burned  at  the  stake.  A  brother  of  Huascar,  the  Inca  Manco,  sought  an  interview 
with  the  Spaniards  and  put  forth  his  claims  to  the  throne  of  his  fathers,  asking  Pizarro's 


IllECO  CAVILAN 


^£&;>^ 


UOdlNGO  nt  i-«  PRESa 

AUTOGRAPHS  OF   THE   FIRST  OFFICIALS   WHO  GOVERNED 
LIMA    WITH    PIZARRO. 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  PERU  87 

protection.  As  it  did  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  Pizarro's  plans,  but  rather  promised  to 
further  them,  the  Conqueror  caused  Manco  to  be  crowned  at  Cuzco,  the  ceremony  being 
more  like  an  acknowledgment  of  vassalage  to  Spain  than  the  coronation  of  a  royal  heir  of 
the  Inca  dynasty.  However,  the  outward  semblance  of  royalty  counted  for  much  among 
the  Inca's  subjects,  who,  at  that  time,  no  doubt  had  very  confused  ideas  as  to  Pizarro's  place 
in  the  government,  and  were  contented  as  long  as  the  crimson  masca  paicha  adorned  the 
brow  of  an  Inca  prince.  By  this  politic  proceeding,  the  governor,  as  Pizarro  was  now  called, 
was  able  to  begin  the  colonization  of  the  country,  though  only  after  all  the  temples,  palaces, 
fortresses,  and  tombs  of  the  holy  city  had  been  stripped  of  their  last  treasures, — the  amount 
secured  being  even  greater  than  the  ransom  of  Atahuallpa, — was  it  possible  to  establish  the 
institutions  of  peaceful  government. 

Leaving  Cuzco  to  be  ruled  by  one  of  his  brothers,  Pizarro  set  out  for  the  coast  to  learn 
the  intentions  of  a  newly  arrived  adventurer,  Pedro  de  Alvarado,  who  had  been  with  Cortes 
in  Mexico,  and  had  come  to  seek  a  fresh  field  for  his  military  prowess  in  Peru,  having  heard 
of  the  Conquest  and  of  the  enormous  booty  secured  by  the  discoverers.  Pizarro  met 
Alvarado  at  Pachacamac,  where  they  came  to  a  friendly  understanding,  and  spent  some 
time  together  in  social  entertainment,  after  which  Alvarado  departed  for  Guatemala,  and 
Pizarro,  who  had  long  realized  that  Cuzco  was  too  inaccessible  to  be  a  satisfactory 
metropolis  for  the  new  colonial  empire,  began  to  plan  for  the  foundation  of  a  suitable 
capital  on  the  coast.  He  concluded  that  the  neighboring  valley  of  Rimac  offered  desirable 
advantages,  and  here  the  site  was  chosen  on  the  6th  of  January,  1^3^,  the  new  capital 
being  named  the  City  of  the  Kings  in  honor  of  the  festival  of  Twelfth  Night.  The  popular 
name,  however,  has  always  been  Lima,  a  corruption  of  the  Indian  "Rimac."  The  founding 
of  the  city  did  not  take  place  until  two  weeks  after  the  selection  of  the  site. 

The  foundation  of  Lima  marks  the  closing  period  in  the  history  of  the  Conquest,  a 
period  in  which  that  remarkable  drama  of  warring  ambition  reached  a  final  scene  in  keepir^ 
with  the  tragic  story.  When  the  royal  fifth  of  the  enormous  treasure  taken  from  the  Inca's 
dominions  arrived  at  the  court  of  Spain,  the  whole  country  went  mad  with  excitement  over 
such  a  mountain  of  gold.  Charles  was  overcome  with  delight  and  manifested  his  apprecia- 
tion of  the  great  service  rendered  by  Pizarro,  Almagro  and  Valverde,  by  giving  to  the  first 
the  title  of  Marquis  with  seventy  leagues  more  of  territory  southward;  to  Almagro  two 
hundred  leagues,  beginning  at  the  southern  boundary  of  Pizarro's  dominions;  and  to 
Father  Valverde  the  bishopric  of  Cuzco.  Father  Luque  had  died  at  Panama,  after  warning 
Almagro  to  be  on  his  guard  in  his  dealings  with  Pizarro,  whom  the  honest  priest  distrusted 
from  the  first.  Following  his  advice,  and  profiting  by  his  own  previous  experience,  Almagro 
had  sent  his  personal  representative  to  Spain  with  Hernando  Pizarro,  when  that  cavalier 
was  commissioned  to  carry  the  royal  fifth  to  the  king.  The  Conqueror  and  his  marshal, 
as  Almagro  was  called,  no  sooner  received  news  of  the  division  of  their  possessions  than 
they  began  to  quarrel  over  the  limits.  Almagro  claimed  Cuzco  in  his  province  of  New 
Toledo,  while  Pizarro  insisted  that  the  Inca  capital  belonged  to  his  dominion,  which  was 


88 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


called  New  Castile.     Pizarro  went  to  Cuzco,  met  Almagro  and  persuaded  him  to  allow  the 
matter  to  rest  until  Hernando  should  arrive  from  Panama  with  the  documents;  the  two 

embraced  and  swore  undy- 
ing loyalty  to  each  other,  after 
which  Almagro  set  out  to 
conquer  Chile,  while  Pizarro 
returned  to  the  task  which 
gave  him  more  pleasure  than 
any  other,  the  building  of 
the  new  capital  of  Peru. 
He  also  founded  the  city  of 
Trujillo,  naming  it  after  his 
birthplace  in  Spain. 

Meantime  the  young 
Inca  Manco  had  been  laying 
plans  for  revolt,  goaded  to 
desperation  by  the  insults 
which  he  and  his  people, 
suffered  from  the  Spaniards. 
Not  only  were  the  temples 
robbed,  the  practice  of  his 
religion  being  forbidden,  but 
gross  treatment  was  shown 
to  the  priests  and  all  manner 
of  outrages  were  committed. 
The  women  of  the  convents 
were  turned  into  the  streets 
to  become  the  prey  of  a 
vicious  soldiery.  Twice  the  Inca  made  his  escape,  and  the  second  time  he  succeeded 
in  collecting  a  large  army,  but  their  arrows  and  sling-stones  made  little  impression  on  the 
Spanish  coat  of  mail,  and  only  tlieir  copper-tipped  lances  and  battle-axes  of  the  same 
material  served  in  the  fight;  these  weapons  they  used  so  dexterously  that  the  enemy 
was  forced  to  retreat  to  Cuzco,  which  the  Indians  promptly  surrounded  and  set  on  fire, 
preferring  to  burn  their  holy  city  to  the  ground  to  seeing  it  in  possession  of  the  hated 
conquerors.  Their  revolt  was  so  determined  and  persistent  that  Pizarro  became  alarmed 
and  sent  reinforcements  and  supplies  to  his  countrymen,  who  were  in  dire  straits  for 
several  weeks,  shut  up  in  the  lialf-demolished  city,  while  the  Indians  held  possession 
of  the  fortress  of  Sacsahuaman  and  all  the  mountain  passes  around.  Manco  himself 
occupied  the  fortress  of  Ollantaytambo,  which  the  Spaniards  attacked  unsuccessfully, 
being  forced  to  retreat  to  Cuzco  without  effecting  his  capture.     Although  the  Spanish 


A  DESCENDANT   OF   THE   CONQUERED  INCA. 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  PERU  89 

arms  finally  prevailed  and  the  Inca's  forces  were  scattered,  this  proud  and  heroic  prince 
continued  to  harass  the  usurpers  of  his  kingdom  for  years,  so  that  his  name  was  held 
in  terror  by  the  colonists,  until  he  was  at  last  assassinated  by  a  party  of  Spaniards  to 
whom  he  had  given  shelter  in  his  camp. 

Almagro's  expedition  to  Chile  having  proved  a  failure,  the  adventurer  returned  to 
establish  his  claim  to  Cuzco.  He  was  met  by  Pizarro's  brother,  Hernando,  his  old  enemy, 
and  was  defeated  near  Cuzco,  imprisoned  and  put  to  death  by  the  Conqueror's  orders.  To 
his  son  he  bequeathed  the  province  of  New  Toledo.  But  Pizarro  saw  in  the  death  of  his 
old  comrade  an  opportunity  to  unite  the  two  provinces  under  one  government,  and  he 
refused  to  recognize  the  claim  of  the  younger  Almagro,  which  so  incensed  the  veteran 
followers  of  Pizarro's  latest  victim  that  they  swore  a  terrible  vengeance  on  the  usurping 
governor.  Driven  to  desperation  by  the  apparent  hopelessness  of  their  cause,  and  eager 
to  avenge  the  death  of  their  beloved  leader — for  Almagro  had  been  the  idol  of  his  soldiers, 
whose  devotion  he  held  by  unfailing  kindness  and  generosity — "  those  of  Chile,"  as  they 
were  contemptuously  called  by  Pizarro's  men,  were  ready  to  commit  any  crime  that  would 
rid  them  of  the  domination  of  the  hated  Conqueror.  Under  the  leadership  of  Juan  de 
Rada,  who,  on  the  death  of  the  senior  Almagro,  constituted  himself  the  guardian  and  champion 
of  the  son,  affectionately  known  among  Almagro's  men  as  El  Mo{o,  the  conspirators  laid 
their  plans  against  the  life  of  the  governor  with  consummate  skill  and  daring.  Pizarro 
was  warned  of  their  purpose,  which  had  been  revealed  in  the  confessional ;  but  he  paid 
no  heed  to  danger,  and  was  entertaining  a  number  of  friends  at  breakfast  when  the  fatal 
hour  arrived. 

Whatever  may  be  said  of  Pizarro's  character,  he  was  no  coward,  and  when  the 
assassins  rushed  into  his  house  with  the  shout  "Long  live  the  King!  Death  to  the  tyrant  1" 
they  were  met  by  the  Conqueror,  who,  not  having  time  to  buckle  on  his  armor,  threw  his 
capa,  or  cloak,  over  his  shoulder  and  faced  his  enemies,  sword  in  hand.  After  a  brave 
resistance,  he  sank  down  with  a  fatal  wound  in  the  throat.  Wetting  his  fmger  in  his  own 
blood,  he  traced  a  cross  on  the  floor,  and  was  bending  to  kiss  the  sacred  symbol,  when  the 
coup  de  grace  put  an  end  to  his  life.  Thus,  in  the  last  moment,  the  heart  of  the  Crusader 
triumphed  over  the  instincts  of  the  gold-seeker! 

The  burial  of  Pizarro  was  attended  by  none  of  the  pomp  and  ceremony  usually 
observed  in  the  obsequies  of  a  great  hero;  on  the  contrary,  the  interment  was  hasty  and 
stealthy,  performed  in  fear  and  trembling  lest  it  should  be  interrupted  and  the  corpse 
dragged  to  the  market  place.  Not  until  more  than  half  a  century  later  were  the  bones  of 
the  discoverer  and  conqueror  of  Peru  removed  to  their  present  resting  place  in  the  Cathedral 
of  Lima.  With  the  death  of  Francisco  Pizarro  the  period  of  the  Conquest  ends,  as  the 
pretensions  of  the  younger  Almagro,  who  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Governor  and 
Captain-General  of  Peru  after  the  assassination  of  the  Conqueror,  were  not  recognized  by 
the  King  of  Spain,  who  sent  Vaca  de  Castro  to  cooperate  with  Pizarro  in  establishing  peace 
in  Peru,  with  authorization  to  take  the  reins  of  government  in  his  own  hands  in  case  of 


90 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


Pizarro's  death.  As  soon  as  Vaca  de  Castro  arrived,  he  assumed  the  position  of  governor 
and  captain-general,  and,  gathering  under  his  command  the  soldiers  who  remained  loyal  to 
the  king,  he  at  once  marched  against  Almagro,  whom  he  defeated  on  the  plains  of  Chupas, 
near  Ayacucho,  in  September,  1542.  Almagro  escaped  from  the  battlefield  and  fled  to  Cuzco, 
where  he  was  taken  prisoner  and,  by  the  governor's  order,  was  beheaded.  About  the  same 
time.  Bishop  Valverde  was  assassinated  by  the  Indians  of  Puna  while  on  his  way  to  Panama. 
Thus  the  leading  spirits  in  the  invasion  and  conquest  of  Peru  met  with  a  violent  death; 
Hernando  Pizarro  languished  in  a  Spanish  prison  for  twenty  years,  and  Hernando  de  Soto 
died  in  the  wilds  of  the  Mississippi  forests. 


COAT-OF-ARMS  GRANTED   PIZARRO   BY   CHARLES  V.  AFTER   THE 
CONQUEST  OF   CUZCO. 


FACADE  OF  SAN  AGUSTIN  CHURCH,  LIMA,  SHOWING  ELABORATE  CARVING  OF  COLONIAL  DAYS. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE   REIGN   OF   THE   VICEROYS 


\  FTER  the  Conquest,  all  the  Spanish  dominions  in 
the  New  World  were  divided  under  two  govern- 
ments, one  of  which  was  subject  to  the  Viceroy 
of  Mexico  and  the  other  to  the  Viceroy  of  Peru. 
As  representatives  of  His  Catholic  Majesty,  and 
directly  appointed  by  him,  the  viceroys  were 
chosen  from  the  noblest  families  of  Spain, 
especially  distinguished  for  their  services  to 
the  Church  and  the  army.  These  proud 
grandees  established  their  court  in  the  colo- 
nial capitals  on  a  scale  of  magnificence  hardly 
excelled  by  that  of  their  royal  master;  and  the 
City  of  the  Kings  grew  even  to  rival  Madrid 
in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  as 
a  metropolis  of  Spanish  fashion  and  culture. 
But  the  period  immediately  following 
the  Conquest  gave  little  promise  of  peace 
and  prosperity  for  the  colony  of  Peru.  Revolution  and  anarchy  prevailed  even  after  the 
ignoble  strife  between  the  Pizarros  and  the  Almagros  was  ended  by  the  tragic  death  of  the 
Conqueror  and  the  execution  of  the  younger  Almagro.  The  firm  authority  of  Governor 
Vaca  de  Castro  sufficed  to  maintain  order  and  tranquillity  as  long  as  he  remained  in  the 
country,  but  with  the  arrival  of  his  successor,  the  first  viceroy,  a  storm  of  revolt  broke  over 
the  colony  with  such  tumultuous  force  that  it  threatened  to  overthrow  permanently  the 
authority  of  the  Spanish  king  in  his  richest  and  most  valued  possession. 

Blasco  Nufiez  de  Vela,  the  first  viceroy  of  Peru,  who  was  appointed  to  succeed  Vaca 
de  Castro  in  1^44,  is  described  as  a  brave,  honorable,  and  devout  man,  but  arrogant  and 
imperious,  utterly  incapable  of  understanding  and  dealing  with  the  turbulent  spirit  of  the 

93 


THE  FIRST  COAT-OF-ARMS   BESTOWED  ON   LIMA 
BY   CHARLES   V. 


94  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

adventurers,  in  whom  ambition,  avarice,  and  jealousy  were  the  ruling  passions,  fostered  by 
the  peculiar  circumstances  which  had  governed  Peru  ever  since  the  capture  of  Atahuallpa. 
It  was  especially  unfortunate  that  a  man  of  the  temperament  and  prejudices  of  the  new 
viceroy  should  have  been  chosen  to  effect  a  change  in  existing  conditions,  requiring  the 
most  judicious  and  delicate  management. 

The  harsh  treatment  to  which  the  Indians  were  subjected  under  tlie  Conquerors  was 
brought  to  the  attention  of  the  King  of  Spain  by  a  Dominican  friar,  Las  Casas, — whose 
benevolent  labors  gained  for  him  the  title  of  "  Protector  of  the  Indians," — in  a  remarkable 
document,  containing  such  an  appalling  record  of  the  wickedness  practised  against  these 
helpless  wards  of  the  Crown  that  the  king,  deeply  impressed,  called  a  council  to  devise 
means  of  ameliorating  their  condition.  As  a  result,  the  Viceroy  Blasco  Nunez  de  Vela  was 
the  bearer  of  strict  orders  from  Spain  to  abolish  the  system  of  encomiendas,  by  which  the 
Indians  had  been  made  ostensibly  the  proteges  but  really  the  slaves  of  the  Conquerors,  not 
only  their  lands  but  their  persons  being  appropriated  as  the  legitimate  spoils  of  victory.  It 
is  true  that,  under  the  Incas'  the  people  had  possessed  no  freedom,  but  they  had  been 
given  no  tasks  too  heavy  for  their  strength  and  they  had  been  kindly  treated  and  well 
provided  with  food  and  clothing;  under  their  new  masters  they  were  both  abused  and 
neglected.  The  granaries  which  formerly  were  well  filled  after  every  harvest  were 
allowed  to  become  empty,  because  tillage  was  abandoned  for  the  more  profitable  labor 
in  the  mines;  and  the  llamas,  whose  wool  furnished  the  Indian  with  clothing,  were 
slaughtered  so  recklessly  that,  within  four  years,  more  of  these  animals  perished  than  in 
four  centuries  under  the  Incas. 

According  to  the  royal  decree,  the  viceroy  was  to  declare  the  Indians  vassals  of  the 
Crown,  though  the  present  encomenderos,  or  owners,  were  to  retain  their  privileges,  except 
in  the  case  of  public  functionaries,  ecclesiastics,  religious  corporations,  all  who,  by  cruelty 
and  neglect,  had  shown  themselves  unworthy  of  the  privilege,  and  all  who  were  implicated 
in  the  crimes  resulting  from  the  quarrel  between  Pizarro  and  Almagro.  On  the  death  of  the 
present  proprietors,  their  Indians  reverted  to  the  Crown.  The  viceroy,  although  representing 
the  supreme  authority,  was  accompanied  by  a  Real  Audiencia  consisting  of  four  oidores,  or 
judges,  clothed  with  extensive  powers  both  civil  and  criminal,  the  viceroy  being  president 
of  their  council.  At  the  same  time  the  Real  Audiencia  of  Charcas  was  appointed  to  have 
jurisdiction  in  Alto  Peru  and  its  dependencies.  It  was  largely  owing  to  the  differences 
which  arose  between  Blasco  Nunez  de  Vela  and  the  Real  Audiencia  of  Lima  that  his  mission 
was  a  failure. 

The  order  abolishing  encomiendas  was  received  with  demonstrations  of  discontent 
throughout  the  colony.  Few  of  the  Conquerors  could  hope  to  retain  their  Indians  under 
the  new  law,  and  they  were  furious  at  what  they  considered  an  effort  to  despoil  them 
of  the  fruits  of  their  hard-earned  victory.  In  the  streets,  plazas,  and  churches,  indignant 
crowds  gathered  to  protest  against  the  decree,  news  of  which  reached  Peru  some  months 
before  the  viceroy's  arrival.     The  governor,  Vaca  de  Castro,  succeeded  in  calming  the 


THE  REIGN  OF  THE  yiCEROYS 


9S 


turbulent  leaders  by  explaining  that  it  would  be  the  wisest  course  to  petition  the  Crown 
asking  for  the  repeal  of  the  law,  and  then  patiently  to  await  the  arrival  of  the  viceroy, 
who  might  be  prevailed  upon  to  delay  action  until  the  answer  to  their  petition  should 
be  received  from  Spain.    Vaca  de  Castro  was  not  slow  to  recognize  that  the  most  powerful 

« 

friend  of  the  mal- 
contents was  Gon- 
zalo  Pizarro,  at  that 
time  engaged  in 
exploiting  rich  sil- 
ver mines  in  Char- 
cas  (now  Bolivia), 
to  whom  they  had 
already  appealed 
for  protection ;  and 
in  a  diplomatic  let- 
ter, he  cautioned 
Pizarro  not  to  be 
drawn  into  the  re- 
volt. By  his  judi- 
cious policy,  public 
order  was  main- 
tained and  prepa- 
rations were  made 
to  welcome  the 
viceroy  with  the 
imposing  cere- 
mony due  to  the 
highest  represent- 
ative of  His  Cath- 
olic Majesty. 

The  innate  love 
of  pomp  and  eti- 
quette, character- 
istic of  the  Latin 
race,  was  displayed 
in  all  its  attrac- 
tiveness on  such 
occasions    as    the 

reception  of  a  viceroy;  and  during  the  entire  period  of  colonial  rule  the  arrival  of  these 
dignitaries  was  marked  by  grand  festivities.      Blasco  Nunez  de  Vela  entered   Lima  in 


LIMA  RESIDENCE  OF  THE   MARQUIS  OF  TORRE-TAGLE   DURING  THE   VICEREGAL 
PERIOD.  SHOWING  "  MIRADORES,"  OR   BALCONIES. 


96  THE  OLD  Af^D   THE  NEIV  PERU 

magnificent  state,  under  a  canopy  of  crimson  velvet,  riclily  embroidered  with  the  arms  of 
Spain,  and  supported  on  poles  of  solid  silver,  which  were  carried  by  officials  of  the  munici- 
pality, dressed  in  crimson  satin  robes  that  sparkled  with  jewels.  The  brilliant  procession 
was  met  three  leagues  from  the  capital  by  the  Bishop  of  Cuzco,  Vaca  de  Castro,  and  the 
principal  cavaliers  of  Lima,  and  on  crossing  the  Rimac  River  was  joined  by  the  Bishop  of 
Quito,  the  ecclesiastical  council  and  remaining  clergy,  while  at  the  entrance  to  the  city  the 
municipal  corporation  awaited  the  illustrious  guest.  An  imposing  pageant  was  presented  as 
the  viceroy,  preceded  by  a  cavalier  in  full  armor  bearing  the  mace  of  authority,  and  attended 
by  a  handsome  retinue,  passed  under  the  triumphal  arch  at  the  city  gates  and  proceeded 
to  the  Cathedral,  along  streets  strewn  with  flowers,  while  the  church  bells  chimed  a  joyous 
welcome  and  bands  of  music  made  a  gay  accompaniment.  At  the  Cathedral  Te  Deum  was 
sung,  after  which  the  procession  moved  on  to  the  Palace,  where  the  new  viceroy  took  the 
oath  of  office.  He  inspired  confidence  by  announcing  that  he  would  await  the  arrival  of 
the  Oidores  and  the  installation  of  the  Real  Audiencia  before  proceeding  with  the  question 
of  the  new  ordinance. 

When  the  Oidores  entered  Lima  bearing  the  royal  seal,  the  city  was  again  the  scene 
of  a  grand  and  imposing  display.  By  order  of  the  king,  the  royal  seal  was  received  with  as 
much  ceremony  as  attended  a  visit  of  his  majesty  to  the  cities  of  his  kingdom.  It  was 
placed  in  a  box  covered  with  cloth  of  gold,  and  was  borne  by  a  magnificent  charger,  richly 
caparisoned  and  led  by  one  of  the  city  aldermen  in  gala  dress,  while  four  other  officials  in 
robes  of  crimson  velvet  carried  above  the  royal  insignia  the  canopy  of  state  embroidered 
with  the  arms  of  Spain. 

The  Real  Audiencia  was  duly  installed,  and  everything  went  well  in  the  beginning 
under  the  newly  established  authority,  the  council  having  decided  to  suspend  the  ordinance 
against  encomiendas  until  word  should  arrive  from  Spain  in  answer  to  the  petition  for  its 
repeal;  except  that  immediate  enforcement  was  made  in  the  case  of  public  functionaries. 
But,  unfortunately,  the  viceroy  and  the  Real  Audiencia  did  not  long  agree  on  the  policy  of 
government,  and  their  quarrels  weakened  the  prestige  of  the  colonial  authority  at  a  time 
when  all  its  strength  was  needed  to  cope  with  the  disaffected  soldiers  of  the  Conquest,  who 
bitterly  resented  the  way  in  which  they  were  thrust  aside,  now  that  their  services  were  no 
longer  of  prime  necessity  to  the  Crown.  Gonzalo  Pizarro  saw  that  he  was  to  have  no  share 
in  the  dignities  and  honors  of  the  colonial  government,  and  he  took  advantage  of  the 
quarrel  between  the  viceroy  and  the  Real  Audiencia  to  raise  a  large  army  and  march  on 
Lima,  the  oidores  treacherously  aiding  him;  the  viceroy  escaped  to  Tumbes  and  marched  to 
Quito,  whither  Pizarro  followed,  engaging  the  royal  army  in  a  fierce  battle  near  that  city, 
during  which  the  sovereign's  representative  was  defeated  and  slain.  The  victor  was  then 
lord  of  Peru,  and  more  independent  of  the  royal  authority  than  his  illustrious  brother,  the 
Conqueror  himself,  had  ever  been ;  he  could  raise  a  powerful  army,  could  control  a  large 
squadron,  had  at  his  disposal  a  million  dollars  annually,  and  his  friends  guarded  the  national 
ports  of  entry.     He  was  acclaimed  the  liberator  of  Peru  and  made  a  grand  triumphal  march 


THE  REIGN  OF  THE  yiCEROYS 


<rj 


into  the  capital,  amid  the  vivas  of  the  multitude,  the  chime  of  church  bells,  and  the  strains 
of  martial  music.  His  companions  would  have  crowned  him  king;  but  whether  Pizarro 
vacillated  be- 
cause he  knew 
too  well  the 
fickle  character 
of  his  enthusi- 
astic supporters, 
or  whether  the 
moment  did  not 
seem  opportune 
for  such  a  step, 
he  never  assum- 
ed the  purple 
robes  of  royalty, 
though  liis  au- 
thority was  as 
absolute  as  that 
of  a  king. 

When  the 
tidings  reached 
Spain  that  the 
viceroy  had  been 
killed  on  the  bat- 
tlefield and  that 
Gonzalo  Pizarro 
reigned  supreme 
in  the  colony, 
it  caused  the 
greatest  conster- 
nation. A  policy 
of  conciliation 
was     at     once 


DOORWA*!    u)     A   COLONIAL    ,  ^or, 


IN  CUZCO,  PERIOD  FOLLOWING   THE  CONQUEST. 


adopted,  the  law 

abolishing  encomiendas  was  revoked,  and  a  priest,  Pedro  Gasca,  was  appointed,  not  as 
viceroy,  but  as  president  of  the  Audiencia,  with  full  power  to  represent  the  interests  of  the 
Crown  in  this  difficult  situation.  Though  an  ecclesiastic,  he  was  a  brave  soldier,  added  to 
which,  he  possessed  a  wonderful  knowledge  of  human  nature.  By  his  tact  he  won  many 
of  Pizarro's  followers  as  soon  as  he  landed  at  Tumbes,  where  he  appeared  clothed  in  the 
simple  garb  of  a  priest,  with  a  breviary  in  his  hand  and  the  king's  pardon  for  all  who  would 


98  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

help  him  to  establish  peace  in  the  country.  His  ranks  were  rapidly  filled  with  deserters 
from  Pizarro's  army  as  he  marched  across  the  mountains  to  meet  the  enemy,  whom  he 
encountered  at  Sacsahuaman,  near  Cuzco,  and  defeated.  Pizarro  was  taken  prisoner  and 
executed.  Gasca  and  his  army  then  marched  on  to  Lima,  where  the  victor  was  received  with 
even  greater  welcome  and  rejoicing  than  had  greeted  the  victorious  Pizarro.  But  it  was  not 
until  some  years  later  that  the  civil  wars  of  the  Conquerors  finally  came  to  an  end.  When 
Gasca  returned  to  Spain,  the  second  viceroy,  Don  Antonio  de  Mendoza,  who  had  previously 
held  the  same  high  office  in  Mexico,  was  appointed  to  take  charge  of  affairs  in  Peru.  He  died 
the  following  year  and  the  government  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Real  Audiencia,  until,  in 
I  ^^5,  the  third  viceroy  was  named,  Don  Andres  Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  Marquis  de  Cafiete, 
under  whose  judicious  and  energetic  rule  the  country  was  pacified  and  the  authority  of  the 
Crown  of  Spain  securely  established.  During  the  administration  of  this  able  statesman  the 
son  of  the  Inca  Manco,  whose  following  was  great  in  the  sierra  and  around  Cuzco,  made  a 
formal  abdication  in  favor  of  the  King  of  Spain,  receiving  in  return  an  annuity  of  twenty 
thousand  ducats  and  other  grants.  It  is  related  that  when  the  inca  went  to  Lima  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  he  was  carried  from  Cuzco  to  the  capital  in  a  litter,  borne  on  the  shoulders 
of  his  faithful  subjects,  and  that  he  received  the  homage  of  his  people  wherever  he  stopped 
along  the  route;  but  the  poverty  of  his  own  state  and  the  empty-handed  greeting  of  his 
unhappy  compatriots  made  his  progress  a  via  dolorosa  of  poignant  significance.  He  survived 
the  ordeal  only  three  years,  which  he  passed  in  melancholy  seclusion.  The  successor 
of  the  Marquis  de  Canete,  the  Count  de  Nieva,  occupied  the  viceregal  office  for  only  a  short 
time;  he  was  assassinated  by  order  of  a  jealous  husband.  His  post  was  taken  by  an 
ecclesiastic,  Lope  Garcia  de  Castro,  who,  as  President  of  the  Real  Audiencia,  continued  the 
work  of  organizing  the  various  political  institutions  of  the  colony.  Peru  was  divided  into 
provinces  governed  by  corregidores ;  the  towns  peopled  by  Spaniards  had  caUldos,  or  munic- 
ipal councils,  with  alcaldes,  or  mayors,  and  aldermen ;  the  Indians  were  governed  through 
their  caciques,  whose  authority  was,  and  still  is,  recognized  by  the  central  government. 

One  of  the  most  illustrious  of  the  viceroys,  Don  Francisco  de  Toledo,  son  of  the  Count 
of  Oropesa,  ruled  Peru  from  i  ^6-]  to  i  ^80,  and  his  rigorous  though  well-ordered  government 
marked  a  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  colony.  He  began  his  administration  by  making 
a  grand  tour  of  all  the  provinces,  during  which  he  informed  himself  as  to  the  needs  of  the 
people  and  the  laws  required  for  their  well-being.  Accompanied  by  the  priests  Ondegardo 
and  Acosta,  both  of  whom  became  celebrated  afterward  as  historians  of  the  Conquest,  and 
having  in  his  suite  an  oldor  and  several  eminent  personages  of  his  court,  the  great  viceroy 
made  an  imposing  progress,  being  received  everywhere  with  a  welcome  fit  for  a  king. 
Though  autocratic  in  his  methods,  he  was  eminently  successful  in  reforming  the  political 
organization  of  the  country;  the  corregidores,  alcaldes,  municipal  police,  in  fact,  every 
employee  of  the  government,  received  positive  instructions  as  to  the  duties  of  his  office. 
He  abolished  encomiendas  and  obliged  the  Indians  to  live  in  communities,  in  each  of  which 
a  church  was  built  and  priests  were  appointed  to  give  the  inhabitants  religious  instruction. 


THE  REIGN  OF  THE  l/ICEROYS 


99 


Hundreds  of  these  communities  or  reducciones  were  founded  by  the  viceroy's  order,  and 
built  up  witii  adobe  houses,  straight,  though  narrow,  streets,  cabildos,  jails,  hospitals,  and  a 
tract  of  land  to  be  held  as  community  property  and  worked  on  shares.    The  viceroy  also 

established  a  reg- 
ular system  for  the 
labor  by  miU,  or 
rotation,  required 
of  the  Indians,  as 
well  as  for  the 
tribute  they  were 
obliged  to  pay  from 
the  age  of  eighteen 
to  fifty;  more  than 
twelve  thousand 
;w//j)Y«,  as  the  rota- 
tion laborers  were 
called,  were  con- 
signed to  the  silver 
mines  of  Potosi, 
then  at  the  height 
of  their  production, 
and  three  thou- 
sand to  the  mines 
of  quicksilver  in 
Huancavelica,  re- 
cently discovered. 
The  Crown  grant- 
ed ownership  of 
the  mines  to  any 
Spaniards  who 
would  guarantee 
to  work  them  and 

to     deliver      to      the  church   of   the   COMPaSia,  ARBQUIPA.   showing    UXQllSITL    HAND  CARVING. 

king  one-fifth    of 

all  the  ores  extracted,  and  the  mita  was  established  in  order  to  supply  the  necessary  labor  to 
work  the  mines;  but  so  cruel  was  the  oppression  of  the  unhappy  mitayos  that,  it  is  said, 
only  a  tenth  of  them  ever  returned  to  their  homes,  the  rest  dying  a  miserable  death  under 
the  heavy  tasks  inflicted  on  them  by  greedy  and  inhuman  masters.  The  viceroys  were 
charged,  on  the  one  hand,  to  protect  the  Indians,  and  on  the  other  to  increase  by  all  means 
the  royal  fifth  from  the  mines;  their  office  was  no  sinecure. 


lOo  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

Not  only  did  the  Viceroy  Toledo  make  laws  to  improve  the  Indian's  condition  as  far  as 
was  consistent  with  his  duty  to  increase  the  "  King's  fifth "  to  the  utmost  extent,  but  he 
also  introduced  reforms  for  the  benefit  of  the  Spanish  colonists,  establishing  new  schools, 
hospitals  and  other  institutions.  Social  life  began  to  show  more  distinctive  features  in  tlie 
colonial  capital  than  had  been  possible  during  the  turbulent  period  immediately  following 
the  Conquest;  the  viceroy  and  ecclesiastics  entertained  with  sumptuous  festivals,  and 
luxurious  tastes  and  habits  appeared  among  the  nobility. 

But  the  zeal  of  the  viceroy  went  farther  than  the  royal  mandate  intended,  and  over- 
reached itself  in  the  execution  of  an  Inca  chief,  who  had  assumed  the  masca  paicha  on  the 
death  of  inca  Manco's  son,  and  who,  according  to  the  viceroy,  constantly  stimulated  among 
the  Indians  a  spirit  of  revolt,  which  might  break  out  in  open  insurrection  at  any  moment. 
The  Inca  had  refused  to  consider  any  offer  as  the  price  of  his  claim  to  royalty,  and  the 
viceroy  ordered  him  to  be  seized  and  put  to  death,  in  spite  of  the  intercession  of  the  bishop, 
the  municipal  council  and  other  notable  authorities  of  Cuzco.  When  Toledo  returned  to 
Spain,  expecting  the  thanks  of  his  sovereign  for  the  services  he  had  rendered  the  Crown  in 
twelve  years  of  arduous  labor  under  the  most  adverse  conditions,  Philip  II.  greeted  the  aged 
cavalier  coldly  and  requested  him  to  withdraw  from  court,  saying  "I  did  not  send  you  to 
Peru  to  kill  Kings,  but  to  serve  Kings."  Yet  the  Viceroy  Toledo  has  been  called  the  Solon 
of  Peru,  for  the  wisdom  displayed  in  his  government.  During  his  administration,  the 
colony  made  wonderful  progress  in  wealth  and  culture,  and  the  "royal  fifth"  was  greater 
than  it  had  ever  been  before.  The  Spanish  monarchs  apparently  did  not  esteem  very 
highly  the  sacrifices  made  by  their  discoverers,  conquerors  and  pioneers  of  authority,  who 
contributed  to  the  sovereign  possessions  so  handsomely,  by  the  annexation  of  a  continent, 
the  gift  of  a  houseful  of  gold,  and  the  collection  of  "royal  fifths"  large  enough  to  pay  for 
building  the  Invincible  Armada  1 

During  the  last  year  of  the  Viceroy  Toledo's  rule,  the  port  of  Callao  was  sacked  by  the 
English  corsair.  Sir  Francis  Drake ;  and  in  order  to  avoid  a  repetition  of  such  a  catastrophe, 
the  viceroy  fitted  out  ships  and  sent  his  pilot  Sarmiento  to  explore  the  Pacific  Coast  as  far 
as  the  Strait  of  Magellan;  Sarmiento  recommended  the  fortification  of  the  Strait  and  the 
establishment  of  a  colony,  for  which  preparations  were  being  made  at  the  time  of  Toledo's 
return  to  Spain.  Upon  his  departure,  Don  Martin  Enriquez,  a  former  viceroy  of  Mexico, 
was  appointed  to  the  vacant  post,  but  he  died  after  two  years,  the  affairs  of  the  colony 
being  left  in  charge  of  the  Real  Audiencia  of  Lima  for  two  years,  when  the  Count  del  Villar 
Don  Pardo  was  named  viceroy. 

The  expedition  which  was  sent  out  by  Spain  to  form  a  colony  on  the  shore  of  the 
Strait  of  Magellan,  encountered  a  fierce  tempest  and  only  eighteen  of  the  colonists  survived. 
Their  leader  abandoned  them  to  join  the  first  pirate  ships  that  appeared,  which  were  those 
of  Cavendish,  following  in  the  track  of  Drake,  though  with  less  success,  as  the  Pacific  ports 
were  better  protected  than  they  had  been  eight  years  before.  But  if  the  pirates  took 
little  treasure,  their  departure  was  soon  followed  by  the  appearance  of  an  epidemic  of 


THE  REIGN  OF  THE  yiCEKOYS  loi 

smallpox,  which  wrought  terrible  havoc  in  the  colony.  Whole  families  and  even  towns 
were  destroyed  by  the  plague,  the  fields  remained  uncultivated,  the  cattle  neglected,  even 
the  mines  were  abandoned,  the  horrors  of  famine  being  added  to  those  of  the  plague.  This 
was  in  the  year  that  witnessed  the  defeat  of  the  "Invincible  Armada,"  a  catastrophe  that 
brought  in  its  train  many  others  for  the  proud  monarch  of  Spain,  whose  power  was  no 
longer  in  the  ascendant  among  the  arbiters  of  European  destiny,  as  it  had  been  when  he 
was  crowned  king.  But,  although  Peru  suffered  much  from  the  plague,  the  natural  riches 
of  the  country  were  so  abundant  that  the  worst  effects  soon  disappeared  and  prosperity 
reigned,  more  flourishing  than  ever.  The  viceroy  did  all  in  his  power  to  promote  the  best 
interests  of  the  colony,  though  his  humane  laws  made  him  many  enemies.  He  prohibited 
the  forcing  of  miiiyos  to  do  excessive  labor  and  to  live  in  unhealthy  localities,  and  for- 
bade the  treating  of  yanaconas  (Indians  who  carried  burdens)  as  slaves.  During  his 
administration  the  king  accorded  io  graduates  of  the  University  of  San  Marcos  in  Lima 
honors  and  privileges  equal  to  those  of  Salamanca,  the  great  centre  of  learning  in  Spain. 

The  second  Marquis  de  Canete  was  appointed  viceroy  to  succeed  the  Count  del  Villar 
in  1^89.  He  came  accompanied  by  his  wife  and  a  large  suite  of  Spanish  nobility.  Their 
arrival  marked  a  new  era  in  the  social  life  of  the  capital,  which  became  brilliant  with  gay 
functions  and  the  fashionable  amusements  of  a  court.  The  noble  Marquis  and  his  retinue 
were  not  only  received  with  great  ceremony  under  the  crimson  canopy  of  state,  but  the 
festivities  attending  their  arrival  were  of  the  most  elaborate  description  throughout 
the  whole  colony.  The  viceroy  established  a  strict  court  etiquette,  according  to  the 
historian  Lorente,  giving  special  instructions  "that  the  women  of  the  court  should  maintain 
the  greatest  reserve,  not  receiving  attentions  or  seeking  husbands,  and  should  pay  to  the 
vicereine  all  the  respect  which  court  etiquette  demanded."  in  harmony  with  the  viceregal 
grandeur,  a  royal  chapel  was  erected  in  the  palace  and  the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  court 
were  observed  with  imposing  formality.  The  number  of  oidores  was  increased  and  the 
Real  Audiencia  assumed  a  greater  importance,  as  the  growing  prosperity  of  the  colony 
added  to  its  responsibilities  and  influence. 

On  many  occasions  the  viceroy  reproved  the  arrogance  of  the  clergy,  his  high  office 
giving  him  the  authority  of  vice-patron  of  tlie  Church;  and  he  never  forgot  that  his  first 
duty  was  to  his  sovereign,  whose  coat-of-arms  he  caused  to  be  placed  above  the  Arch- 
bishop's on  the  fagade  of  the  seminary,  in  opposition  to  clerical  opinion,  while  he  did  not 
hesitate  to  reprimand  even  the  saintly  Toribio  for  carrying  complaints  to  Rome.  But  it  was 
as  his  sovereign's  Superintendent  of  the  Exchequer  that  the  Marquis  de  Canete  made  his 
government  memorable.  By  every  possible  means  the  declining  revenues  of  the  mother 
country  were  reinforced  from  the  resources  of  her  colonial  treasury,  and  the  genius  of  the 
viceroy  was  displayed  in  the  success  with  which  he  devised  plans  for  collecting  new  taxes. 
Excise  duties,  the  sale  of  deeds  to  illegal  landholders  and  of  privileges  to  office-seekers, 
extraordinary  service  from  the  Indians,  the  extension  of  tribute  claims  to  include  negroes 
and  mulattoes,  the  income  from  legitimatizing  mesti{os,  who  paid  large  sums  to  enjoy  the 


I02 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


THE  KEY  OF  THE  CITY  OF  LIMA. 


privileges  of  inheritance,  the  confiscation  of  the 
property  of  ecclesiastics  who  died  intestate, — 
these  were  only  a  few  of  the  sources  from 
which  the  king's  coffers  were  filled.    The  pro- 
ceeds of  the  mines  of  Huancavelica,  which  con- 
tinued to  increase  in  wealth  at  this  time,  yielded 
an  important  share  of  the  accumulated  wealth, 
and  Castrovireina,  named  in  honor  of  the  vice- 
reine, whose  maiden  name  was  Castro,  became 
an  important  mining  centre  and  a  valuable  source 
of  revenue  to  Spain.    The  numerous  exactions  of 
the  viceroy  met  with  little  opposition  in  an  age 
when  the  most  liberal  governments  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  tax  the  subjects  of  the  Crown  to  any  extent 
required  by  the  demands  of  the  royal  exchequer.    The 
placing  of  restrictions  on  colonial  commerce,  from  whicli 
foreigners,  heretics  and  Spaniards  without  a  license  were  altogether 
prohibited  by  the  Spanish  Crown,  was  not  unusual  in  those  days, 
and  it  was  only  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  that 
any  American  colony  under  European  sovereignty  was  permitted 
to  open  its  ports  to  the  commerce  of  the  world.    During  the  vice- 
royalty,  Seville  was  the  centre  of  the  commercial  monopoly,  a 
royal  board  of  trade  regulating  the  sailings  of  ships,  their  condition, 
length  of  voyage  and  otiier  matters  relating  to  transportation. 

The  death  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  which  occurred  in  1598,  left 
the  fortunes  of  the  rapidly  declining  monarchy  in  the  hands  of  a 
weak  and  indolent  prince,  his  son,  Philip  III.,  during  whose  reign 
the  colonies  obtained  little  protection  from  the  Crown,  but  were 
continually  called  upon  to  contribute  funds  to  its  depleted  treas- 
ury. The  Marquis  de  Cailete  was  succeeded  in  the  viceroyalty 
of  Peru  by  Don  Luis  de  Velasco,  Marquis  de  las  Salinas,  during 
whose  administration  the  colony  enjoyed  great  prosperity  and 
wealth  through  the  increased  production  of  the  mines;  a  new 
theatre  was  built  in  Lima,  the  streets  and  plazas  were  improved 
and  beautified  and  many  handsome  churches  and  other  buildings 
were  erected.  The  Count  de  Monterey,  appointed  viceroy  on  the 
retirement  of  Velasco,  lived  only  a  year  after  his  arrival  in  Peru, 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  Marquis  de  Montes  Claros.  Like  many 
of  his  predecessors,  this  viceroy  had  previously  held  the  same 
office  in  Mexico.     He  was  one  of  the  best  financiers  the  Court  of 


THE  REIGN  OF  THE  l/ICEROYS 


103 


Spain  had  ever  sent  to  the  Indies,  and  so  zealous  were  his  labors  in  behalf  of  the  royal 
exchequer  that  he  was  nicknamed  the  king's  steward.  He  went  himself  to  visit  the  mines 
of  Huancavelica,  the  product  of  which  amounted  to  eight  thousand  two  hundred  quintals 
annually,  and  he  sent  miUiyos  to  the  gold  mines  of  Carabaya  and  Zaruma  and  to  the  silver 
mines  of  Castrovireina,  Vilcabamba,  and  Potosi.  His  successor,  the  Prince  of  Esquilache,  who 
arrived  in  Lima  with  a  numerous 
suite  in  161 5',  devoted  particular 
attention  to  the  defense  of  the 
maritime  ports,  especially  Callao, 
which  he  fortified  with  three 
cannons  and  a  garrison  of  five 
hundred  men.  He  also  organ- 
ized a  navy.  But  he  was  a  poet 
and  a  connoisseur  rather  than  a 
statesman  and  his  financial  abil- 
ity was  not  equal  to  the  demands 
put  upon  it.  Although  the  annual 
budget  of  the  colony  showed  its 
receipts  to  be  nearly  three  mil-, 
lion  ducats,  hardly  enough  re- 
mained to  meet  current  expenses 
after  the  "royal  fifth,"  amounting 
to  a  million  ducats,  had  been  sent 
to  Spain  and  the  cost  of  various 
improvements  effected  by  the 
viceroy  had  been  paid.  His  court 
was,  however,  distinguished  for 
its  brilliancy  and  culture,  and  he 
entertained  many  noted  scien- 
tists and  litterateurs.  During 
his  rule,  several  copies  of  cele- 
brated paintings,  and  even  some 
masterpieces,  were  purchased 
to  adorn  the  churches  of  Peru. 

The  constant  drain  put  on  the  resources  of  Peru  by  the  Spanish  kings  during  the  entire 
period  of  the  viceroyalty  could  have  been  supported  only  by  a  country  of  inexhaustible 
wealth  and  a  people  of  long-suffering  loyalty.  Each  successive  viceroy  came  to  his  office 
with  instructions  to  increase  the  king's  revenues,  while  the  protection  and  aid  from  the 
mother  country  diminished  as  its  demands  grew  more  urgent  and  arrogant.  Philip  III.  died 
in  162 1  and  Philip  IV.  ascended  the  throne,  naming  as  viceroy  of  Peru  the  Marquis  de 


DOORWAY  OF  A  CHURCH   IN  AREQUIPA,  BUILT   DURING   THE 
COLONIAL   PERIOD. 


I04  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

Guadalcazar,  a  descendant  of  El  Gran  Qipitan.  During  his  administration  and  that  of  his 
successor,  the  Count  de  Chinchon,  the  demands  of  the  court  were  so  excessive  that  one 
wonders  the  colonists  did  not  rebel  against  the  extortions.  The  taxes  were  doubled,  the 
sale  of  offices  and  privileges  was  increased,  donations  were  solicited,  duties  were  placed  on 
vicuiia  wool,  salaries  were  reduced,  expenditures  curtailed,  and  all  manners  of  means  resorted 
to  in  order  to  raise  the  sum  required  by  the  King  of  Spain  for  his  fruitless  enterprises  and 
his  extravagant  pastimes ;  for  although  new  mines  were  discovered  in  Cerro  de  Pasco  and 
Cailloma,  Potosi  and  Huancavelica  began  to  show  symptoms  of  decline,  owing  to  the 
primitive  and  wasteful  mining  system  employed. 

The  name  of  the  Count  de  Chinchon  is  associated  with  the  important  discovery  of 
quinine.  His  countess,  who  suffered  from  malarial  fever,  was  cured  by  using  a  remedy 
that  one  of  the  corregidores  had  received  from  the  Indians,  a  preparation  made  from  the 
bark  of  a  tree,  and  now  popularly  known  as  Chinchona  bark.  It  is  said  the  Indians  had 
known  its  merits  from  time  immemorial.  The  Count  de  Chinchon  returned  to  Spain 
in  1640,  and  the  Marquis  de  Mancera,  of  the  illustrious  family  of  Toledo,  occupied  the 
throne  of  the  viceroys  in  Lima  for  the  nine  years  following,  during  which  he  gave  to  Peru 
the  best  squadron  in  the  Pacific  and  protected  Buenos  Aires,  Paraguay,  and  southern  Chile 
from  invasion  by  building  strong  fortifications  and  providing  weapons. of  defence.  His 
successor  was  the  Count  de  Salvatierra,  formerly  viceroy  of  Mexico,  during  whose  adminis- 
tration the  capital  was  beautified  by  many  improvements.  The  handsome  bronze  fountain 
which  still  adorns  the  plaza  in  front  of  the  government  palace  was  erected  by  his  order. 
He-died  in  Lima  soon  after  the  arrival  of  the  viceroy  named  to  succeed  him,  the  Count  de 
Alva.  The  funeral  of  the  Count  de  Salvatierra  was  an  occasion  of  magnificent  ceremony, 
the  widowed  countess  observing  with  great  pomp  and  formality  the  strictest  court  etiquette 
of  mourning. 

The  Count  de  Alva  and  his  successor,  the  Count  de  Santisteban,  gave  especial  attention 
to  the  reform  of  laws  affecting  the  Indians  employed  in  the  mines.  The  discovery  of  new 
mines  at  Laicacota,  in  the  province  of  Puno,  which  produced  one  hundred  thousand  dollars 
in  one  night,  revived  abuses  that  had  been  quelled  in  other  districts,  and  resulted  in  terrible 
fighting  and  bloodshed.  In  the  midst  of  these  conditions  news  was  received  that  Philip  IV. 
was  dead  and  that  his  son  Charles  II.  had  ascended  the  throne.  A  few  months  later  the  Count 
de  Santisteban  died  and  the  pious  Count  de  Lemos,  who  is  said  to  have  lacked  only  the 
frock  to  make  him  a  perfect  Jesuit,  was  appointed  viceroy  of  Peru.  He  came,  accompanied 
by  his  wife  and  two  children,  with  a  retinue  worthy  of  one  of  the  royal  families  of  Europe, 
both  the  count  and  countess  being  descendants  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.  When  the  viceroy 
made  his  official  entry,  the  keys  of  the  city  were  presented  to  him  on  a  gold  salver,  and  he 
received  a  gold-headed  staff  encrusted  with  diamonds,  that  cost  five  thousand  dollars.  The 
triumphal  arch  through  which  he  passed  was  made  entirely  of  silver  plate,  and  the  space 
beneath  it  was  paved  with  five  hundred  and  fifty  bars  of  silver,  worth  more  than  a  million 
dollars.    During  an  absence  of  six  months,  which  the  count  spent  in  Alto  Peru,  the  countess 


THE  REIGN  OF  THE  yiCEROYS  .  105 

ruled  as  vicereine,  her  sagacity  and  energy  being  called  into  requisition  on  more  than  one 
occasion  during  that  time.  The  greatest  labor  of  the  vicen^y  was  devoted  to  the  interests 
of  the  Ciiurcii,  and  the  religious  festivals  held  during  his  administration  were  of  surpassing 
pomp  and  splendor.  Not  even  the  gorgeous  display  that  attended  a  royal  progress  under 
the  Inca  dynasty  rivalled  in  magnificence  the  processions  of  the  Virgin  in  Lima,  held  by 
order  of  the  Count  de  Lemos.  His  successor,  the  Count  de  Castellar,  viceroy  of  Peru  from 
1674  to  1678,  possessed  little  of  the  temperament  of  a  religieux,  though  he  was  an  experienced 
statesman  and  an  able  financier;  during  the  four  years  of  his  government  he  secured  for  the 
treasury  of  Lima  twelve  million  dollars,  and  sent  seven  million  dollars  to  Spain. 

As  the  wealth  and  importance  of  the  viceroyalty  increased,  the  Court  of  Spain  sent 
representatives  to  the  colonial  capital  whose  rank  and  previous  services  to  the  Crown 
entitled  them  to  the  most  exalted  position  in  the  realm,  next  to  that  of  the  sovereign 
himself;  the  salary  of  a  viceroy  was  seventy  thousand  dollars,  his  official  income  being 
double  tliat  amount  from  various  other  sources.  The  Duke  de  la  Palata  and  Prince  of 
Masa,  who  succeeded  the  Count  de  Castellar,  had  held  high  offices  of  state  for  thirty  years 
prior  to  his  appointment  as  Viceroy  of  Peru.  He  belonged  to  the  royal  house  of  Navarre 
and  had  been  a  member  of  the  council  of  regency  during  the  minority  of  Charles  II.  of 
Spain.  With  such  prestige  and  renown,  it  was  to  be  expected  that  his  reception  in  the 
colonial  capital  would  be  of  the  most  magnificent  description.  The  chronicles  of  the  period 
state  that  the  noble  duke  was  welcomed  with  such  pomp  and  splendor  as  his  royal  master 
might  have  envied,  the  street  along  which  he  was  conducted  to  the  palace  being  paved 
with  ingots  of  silver,  while  the  triumphal  arch  through  which  he  made  his  entry  to  the  city 
was  supported  on  silver  pillars.  The  robes  of  the  high  functionaries  who  received  the 
viceroy  and  his  suite  sparkled  with  costly  jewels,  and  in  the  Cathedral  and  the  palace 
enough  gold  and  silver  were  displayed  to  pave  another  calk.  And  all  this  wealth  existed 
in  spite  of  the  millions  sent  annually  to  Spain,  and  the  misfortunes  the  colony  had  suffered 
from  time  to  time  in  consequence  of  interruptions  in  the  working  of  the  mines,  epidemics, 
earthquakes,  and  attacks  from  filibustering  expeditions,  that  increased  as  the  precious 
galleons  of  Spain  were  more  and  more  heavily  laden  with  gold  and  silver  to  attract 
their  cupidity. 

The  Duke  de  la  Palata  spent  the  first  years  of  his  viceroyalty  in  resisting  the  powerful 
attacks  of  a  party  of  a  thousand  filibusters  who  arrived  on  the  Pacific  Coast  with  a  fleet  of 
ships  under  the  command  of  a  Flemish  captain  named  Davis.  The  viceroy  sent  a  squadron 
of  six  ships,  provided  with  one  hundred  and  sixteen  cannons  and  abundant  ammunition,  to 
disperse  them,  and  when  their  scattered  forces  formed  in  groups  and  sacked  the  ports  of 
Guayaquil,  Paita,  Pisco,  Arica,  and  others,  the  duke  sent  out  additional  ships,  a  squadron 
of  volunteers  formed  of  merchants  and  capitalists  gave  their  aid  to  the  royal  authorities,  and 
the  enemy  was  completely  vanquished  and  driven  from  the  coast.  In  order  to  be  secure 
against  disasters  from  future  attacks,  a  wall  was  built  around  the  cities  of  Lima  and  Trujillo, 
by  order  of  the  viceroy.    The  wall  of  Lima  covered  about  six  miles  in  extent,  and  had  five 


io6 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  hlElV  PERU 


bastions,  and  six  gates,  tlie  work  having  been  completed  in  three  years.     In  the  year  1687  a 
disastrous  earthquake  visited  Lima,  causing  the  destruction  of  many  edifices  and  the  loss  of 

some  lives.  The  Cathedral  was  destroyed,  and 
tlie  damage  to  property  was  tremendous.  But 
the  city  recuperated  with  astonishing  rapidity 
and  was  soon  as  gay  as  ever. 

The  question  of  rebuilding  the  Cathedral 
led  to  a  clash  of  opinion  between  the  viceroy 
and  the  Archbishop  of  Lima,  the  latter  refusing 
to  employ  any  of  his  enormous  revenues  in 
the  work.    The  viceroy  had  a  powerful  enemy 

I  a-      ■       r" iJ^^^^^HW  ''^  ^'^^  archbishop,  who  had  held  the  office  of 

r^^-^^==:^i^SjfS^I^^^^^'^^'  ¥F^ -y  .  viceroy  during  the  three  years  that  elapsed 

^'^^SS9^^^^         ' — ==^=^=^'-^  between  the  departure  of  the  Duke  de  Castellar 

and  his  own  arrival,  and  the  quarrels  of  these 
two  great  dignitaries  furnished  abundant  mate- 
rial for  scandal  and  gossip  in  the  gay  capital. 
Lorente,  who  has  given  a  graphic  and  charm- 
ing description  of  social  life  under  the  viceroys, 
relates  several  amusing  incidents.  On  one 
occasion,  during  a  great  national  fiesta,  when 
the  duke  was  witnessing  the  bull  fight  from 
the  viceregal  box,  under  the  crimson  canopy 
of  state,  it  was  called  to  his  attention  that  the 
Archbishop  of  Lima  sat  under  a  crimson  canopy  also;  the  duke  at  once  sent  him  word 
that  that  honor  was  exclusively  reserved  for  the  viceroy  of  His  Catholic  Majesty,  and 
the  archbishop  was  obliged  to  retire  from  the  scene.  The  state  coach,  drawn  by  six 
horses,  which  presented  an  imposing  spectacle  of  luxury  in  those  days,  was  another  object 
of  envy  to  the  eminent  ecclesiastic,  who  realized  that  as  vice-patron  of  the  church  his 
rival  exerted  an  authority  which  otherwise  could  not  have  been  claimed  by  the  viceroy. 
But  the  archbishop  possessed  great  power  and  used  it  effectively  in  thwarting  the  viceroy's 
plans  for  various  reforms,  though  the  administration  was  marked  by  consistent  and  resolute 
efforts  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  'colony.  The  Real  Audiencia  was  enabled  to  exercise 
its  authority  with  greater  freedom,  and  the  entire  country  was  brought  under  a  more 
systematic  order  of  government. 

The  death  of  Charles  IL  of  Spain,  which  took  place  in  1700,  was  the  occasion  of 
impressive  mourning  ceremonies  throughout  the  vast  empire  over  which  the  House 
of  Austria  had  maintained  its  sway  for  nearly  two  centuries.  The  Duke  de  la  Palata  had 
died  ten  years  before  at  Panama,  where  he  was  attacked  with  yellow  fever  while  on  his 
way  to  Spain,  and  his  successor,  the  Count  de  la  Monclova,  a  nephew  of  the  Cardinal 


ENTRANCE  TO  A  COLONIAL  INN,  CUZCO. 


THE  REIGN  OF  THE  FICEROYS 


107 


Portocarrero,  had  already  won  the  clergy  of  the  colony  to  his  support  and  cooperation  by 
his  protection  and  liberal  donations.  He  was  greatly  beloved  and  esteemed,  and  remained 
in  Peru  as  viceroy  after  the  fall  of  the  Austrian  dynasty  and  the  accession  of  the  House  of 
Bourbon  in  the  person  of  Philip  V.,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France;  his  government 
was  marked  by  tolerance  and  the  encouragement  of  social  and  commercial  development 
throughout  the  colony. 

Five  viceroys,  two  of  whom  were  ecclesiastics,  governed  Peru  during  the  reign  of 
Philip  v.;  they  made  a  determined  fight  against  the  evils  of  contraband  trade,  which  had 
grown  to  enormous  proportions,  but  their  efforts  met  with  little  success.  The  Marquis  de 
Torre-Tagle and  Don  Angel  Calderon,  two  wealthy  Limefios,  fitted  out  warships  at  their  own 
cost  to  fight  the  Dutch  contrabandists,  and  took  rich  prizes;  but  although  the  viceroys 
punished  with  great  severity  ail  who  were  captured,  the  traffic  seemed  to  increase  rather  than 
diminish.  In  the  meantime,  the  mines  continued  to  yield  great  treasure,  four  million  dollars 
being  coined  annually.  During  the 
government  of  the  Marquis  de  Villa- 
garcia,  who  was  viceroy  from  1736  to 
174^,  the  royal  fifth  was  reduced  to 
a  tenth,  and  colonial  commerce  was 
stimulated  by  the  service  of  regis- 
tered vessels  that  sailed  via  Cape 
Horn.  Many  comforts  and  luxuries, 
which  had  previously  been  too  ex- 
pensive for  any  but  the  wealthiest 
colonists  to  afford,  now  appeared  in 
the  markets  of  Lima;  the  houses 
began  to  be  better  furnished,  and 
the  calkhe, — a  two-wheeled  vehicle, 
drawn  by  one  horse,  on  which  the 
coachman  rode, — gave  place  to  the 
coach  and  pair.  The  viceroyalty  of 
Santa  Fe  was  separated  from  that 
of  Peru  in  1740. 

Peru  was  enjoying  the  bless- 
ings of  peace  and  progress  under  the 
rule  of  the  Viceroy  Velasco,  Count  de 
Superunda,  when  a  terrible  calamity 
befell  the  gay  capital:  its  seaport, 
Callao,  being  completely  destroyed, 

and  Lima  reduced  to  the  most  deplorable  condition  by  an  earthquake  which  occurred  on  the 
28th  of  October,  1746.    The  palace,  the  university,  the  cathedral,  the  mint,  and  the  municipal 


ONE  OF  THE   COLONIAL   PALACES  OF   AREQUIPA.  BUILT 
TWO  CENTURIES  AGO. 


io8 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEM/  PERU 


A  COLONIAL   AQUEDUCT. 


buildings,  sixteen  colleges,  thirty-six  convents,  and  seventy  churches,  as  well  as  hospitals, 
and  more  than  twelve  thousand  homes  were  destroyed  in  Lima;  while  Callao  was  totally 

submerged  with  its  five  thou- 
sand inhabitants.  The  historian 
of  this  dreadful  catastrophe  re- 
lates that  the  earth  rocked  and 
tossed  like  a  ship  in  a  storm. 
The  clergy  took  advantage  of  the 
opportunity  to  preach  against 
the  worldliness  and  luxury  of 
the  pleasure-loving  people  of 
Lima;  and  for  weeks  society  did 
penance  for  its  sins  by  fastings 
and  mortifications.  Through 
the  active  energy  of  the  vice- 
roy, the  capital  was  rapidly 
rebuilt,  less  than  twelve  years 
being  required  in  the  recon- 
struction of  the  Cathedral,  which  it  had  taken  nearly  a  century  to  build  originally.  Callao 
was  also  rebuilt  and  the  town  of  Bellavista,  which  lies  between  the  capital  and  the  port, 
was  founded.  The  viceroy  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  Lima  once  more  a  gay  and 
prosperous  city,  the  centre  of  luxury  and  fashion,  the  metropolis  toward  which  gravitated 
all  the  wealth  of  a  colony  whose  resources  were  no  longer  confined  to  the  product  of  its 
mines,  but  began  to  be  derived  from  agriculture  and  other  industries. 

While  the  enthusiastic  patriots  of  North  America  were  planning  a  revolution  that  was 
to  bring  independence  to  the  colonies  of  New  England,  and  to  encourage  throughout  all 
America  that  spirit  of  freedom  which  has  since  grown  to  dominate  the  western  world,  the 
viceroyalty  of  Peru  was  in  the  height  of  its  power,  under  the  government  of  Don  Manuel 
Amat,  who  ruled  from  1761  to  177^.  A  military  commander  of  iron  will  and  severe  discipline, 
he  reorganized  the  army,  which  consisted  of  one  hundred  thousand  men,  the  navy  and  the 
police  service  of  the  colony,  and  was  himself  chief  of  a  brilliant  regiment  composed  of  the 
highest  nobles  of  his  court.  By  his  order,  the  Plaza  de  Acho  was  laid  out  and  reserved  for 
public  amusements,  such  as  bull  fights,  ball  games,  etc.;  the  beautiful  Paseo  de  Aguas  was 
also  built  during  his  administration  and  became  the  favorite  promenade  of  fashionable  society. 
It  is  said  that  the  Paseo  was  constructed  to  please  the  Pompadour  of  his  merry  court,  who 
was  known  in  the  scandals  of  the  viceroyalty— and  there  were  many — as  La  Perricholi. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  first  blow  in  the  battle  for  the  independence  of  the  South 
American  colonies  was  struck  by  the  hand  of  the  monarchy  itself,  when  the  order  was 
given  to  expel  the  Jesuits  from  the  Spanish  possessions,  in  1767.  It  was  shortly  after  this 
event  that  the  old-time  enmity  between  Vascongado  and  l^icuuj  began  to  reappear  in  their 


THE  REIGN  OF  THE  yiCEROYS  109 

descendants,  the  Spanish  authorities  and  the  Creole  students  of  the  University  of  San 
Francisco  Javier, — years  before  the  first  patriots  announced  their  campaign.  According  to 
some  authorities,  the  revolution  was  fostered  by  the  Jesuits,  who  resented  as  an  injustice 
the  edict  issued  against  them,  and  helped  to  sow  the  first  seeds  of  republicanism  in  the 
minds  of  the  South  American  subjects  of  Spain.  In  Lima,  the  centre  of  colonial  power, 
there  was  little  more  than  a  rumor  of  the  discontent  that  had  developed  out  of  the  quarrels 
between  criollos  (Spanish-Americans)  and  chapetones  (Spaniards)  in  Potosi  and  Sucre;  at  the 
time  of  the  Jesuits'  banishment,  Lima  was  apparently  happy  in  the  enjoyment  of  peace  and 
plenty.  The  capital  was  constantly  becoming  richer  and  more  attractive  with  its  brilliant  court 
functions,  its  gay  carnivals,  its  fashionable  promenades,  its  theatre,  balls  and  splendid  reli- 
gious festivities,  in  1778,  during  the  administration  of  the  Viceroy  Guirior,  Amat's  successor, 
the  viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Aires  was  formed,  embracing  the  former  Audiencia  of  Charcas. 

A  final  attempt  was  made  in  1780,  by  the  descendants  of  the  Incas,  to  regain  their  lost 
empire.  It  was  carefully  planned,  boldly  initiated,  and  bravely  carried  forward,  assuming 
formidable  proportions  under  the  leadership  of  an  Indian  cacique,  who  called  himself 
Tupac  Amaru,  and  claimed  descent  from  the  Inca  Manco.  Goaded  to  desperation  on 
account  of  the  iniquities  committed  against  his  people  by  the  minor  authorities,  who  could 
never  be  brought  to  justice,  he  determined  to  take  the  law  in  his  own  hands,  and  one  night 
seized  a  ruthless  offender,  the  corregidor  of  his  community  in  the  province  of  Cuzco,  whom 
he  overpowered  and  dragged  to  his  house.  After  forcing  the  magistrate  to  issue  orders 
that  Indians  and  Spaniards  should  obey  the  orders  of  the  Inca,  he  hanged  the  unfortunate 
official  in  the  plaza  and  robbed  his  house,  securing  thirty  thousand  dollars,  which  he  used 
to  promote  his  campaign.  He  collected  an  army  of  sixty  thousand  followers,  intending  to 
march  on  Cuzco,  seize  the  city  and  reestablish  the  Inca  empire;  but  his  followers  were 
undisciplined,  his  troops  badly  organized,  and  in  the  first  encounter  with  the  regiments  of 
the  colonial  army  he  lost  twenty  thousand  men.  The  Bishop  of  Cuzco  threatened  with 
excommunication  all  who  remained  in  the  rebel  ranks,  and  many  leading  supporters  with- 
drew, leaving  Tupac  Amaru  to  meet  seventeen  thousand  drilled  soldiers  in  a  battle  in  which 
his  ranks  were  thrown  into  utter  confusion,  and  he  was  defeated  and  captured  by  the 
enemy.  He  was  put  to  the  torture  of  being  fastened  by  his  arms  and  legs  to  the  saddle 
girths  of  four  horses,  which  were  then  driven  in  opposite  directions,  tearing  him  limb  from 
limb.  Those  of  his  followers  who  escaped  continued  to  make  sporadic  attempts  at  revolt 
and  were  the  first  to  join  the  ranks  of  the  patriots  when  the  war  of  Independence  was 
launched.  But  none  of  the  partisans  of  this  brave  Indian  possessed  his  qualities  of 
leadership  and  their  fate  is  unknown. 

The  prosperity  of  Peru  continued  under  the  rule  of  the  viceroys  Teodoro  de  Croix  and 
Francisco  Gil  de  Lemos,  though  the  influence  of  the  French  revolution  was  beginning  to 
make  itself  felt  in  Venezuela,  Alto  Peru,  and  other  districts  remote  from  the  capital.  During 
De  Croix's  administration,  the  viceroyalty  was  divided  into  seven  intendencias:  Trujillo, 
Lima,  Huancavelica,  Tarma,  Huamanga,  Cuzco,  and  Arequipa;   and   an  Audiencia  was 


I  lO 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


established  in  Cuzco.  The  Count  de  Osorno  became  viceroy  in  1796,  and  was  succeeded 
four  years  later  by  the  Marquis  de  Aviles,  who  devoted  particular  attention  to  the  military 
and  religious  institutions  of  the  country;  during  his  time,  Baron  von  Humboldt,  the  noted 
scientist,  arrived  in  Lima,  and  was  accorded  a  most  hospitable  welcome. 

The  immediate  proximity  of  monarchical  authority  prevented  the  development  of 
conspiracies  in  the  capital  in  favor  of  independence;  but  in  Cuzco,  Moquegua,  Tacna, 
Huanuco,  and  other  provinces,  patriotism,  stimulated  by  the  example  of  the  French  and  the 
North  American  revolutionists,  began  to  give  demonstrations  of  its  strength  and  purpose. 
With  the  retirement  of  the  Marquis  de  Aviles  in  1806,  and  the  arrival  of  his  successor,  Don 
Fernando  Abascal,  the  supremacy  of  the  viceroyalty  in  Peru  may  be  said  to  have  begun  to 
decline,  the  government  of  the  succeeding  representatives  of  the  Crown  of  Spain  being 
occupied  rather  in  an  effort  to  maintain  their  authority  against  the  increasing  and,  finally, 
overwhelming  force  of  the  patriotic  movement,  than  in  public  administration.  The  viceroy 
Abascal  realized  the  importance  of  making  concessions  to  the  now  thoroughly  aroused  spirit 
of  liberty,  and  his  government  was  marked  by  benevolence  and  conciliation.  He  founded 
colleges,  repaired  the  city  walls,  built  a  pantheon,  prohibited  any  further  burials  in  the 
church  vaults,  and  was  zealous  in  the  promotion  of  public  enterprises.  But  the  most 
liberal  and  devoted  efforts  could  not  stay  the  hand  of  destiny.  The  brilliant  court  of  the 
viceroys  was  doomed  to  extinction,  and  the  grandeur  of  colonial  aristocracy  was  to  give 
place  to  the  simplicity  of  republican  ideals. 


PATIO  OF  A  COLONIAL  HOUSE,  LIMA. 


I 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY] 


CHAPTER  VII 


THB    CHURCH    IN    COLONIAL    DAYS 


w 


HEN  the  devout  and  fearless  protector  of 
the  Indians  presented  his  memorable 
appeal  to  the  Crown  of  Spain  in  behalf  of  the 
conquered  races  of  the  New  World,  he  gave 
expression  to  the  lofty  purpose  which  animated  the 
true  missionaries  of  the  Cross  in  their  labors  among 
the  Indians  of  Spanish  America.  With  the  courage 
born  of  pious  zeal,  he  dared  to  say  to  the  most 
powerful  monarch  in  Europe  words  which  must 
have  jarred  on  the  delicate  sensibilities  of  a  sover- 
eign accustomed  only  to  flattery;  but  which,  never- 
theless, could  not  be  ignored,  it  is  said  that 
Charles  V.  was  "stricken  in  conscience"  as  the 
venerable  apostle  of  righteousness,  who  had  de- 
voted more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  to  missionary 
labor  in  America,  thus  proceeded  in  his  arraignment: 
"The  highest  Pontiff  conceded  the  conquest  of  the 
Indies  to  the  Catholic  sovereigns  under  the  solemn 
promise  that  with  their  accustomed  zeal  they  would 
promote  the  conversion  of  those  idolatrous  people  for  the  greatest  glory  of  the  faith  and 
for  the  salvation  of  immortal  souls.  Such  an  important  commission,  confided  to  the  Crown 
itself,  cannot  be  delegated  to  private  individuals.  For  this  reason  Queen  Isabella  was  indig- 
nant when  Columbus  gave  his  followers  a  number  of  the  natives  to  serve  them,  and  she 
obliged  those  who  had  brought  Indians  to  Spain  to  send  them  back  to  their  own  land.  The 
Sovereign  Pontiff  granted  permission  to  conquer  the  Indies  for  the  benefit  of  the  inhabitants, . 
and  in  no  case  to  increase  the  power  and  wealth  of  the  monarchs  of  Castile.  Moreover,  by 
the  enslaving  of  the  Indians,  all  that  has  been  gained  is  the  ruin  of  a  population  that  covered 

113 


ARMS  OF   THE   CATHEDRAL   OF   LIMA. 


114  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE^  PERU 

more  than  two  thousand  live  hundred  leagues  of  land.  The  object  of  the  administration  is 
not  to  preserve  the  territory,  the  walls,  and  the  houses,  but  the  people.  With  such  an  end 
in  view.  Queen  Isabella  declared  in  her  will  that  all  harm  to  the  natives  should  be  avoided, 
and  all  damages  should  be  repaired ;  but  the  death  of  that  august  princess  was  the  signal  for 
the  destruction  of  the  Indies!"  The  spirit  of  consecration  to  a  sacred  task  breathes  in  every 
syllable  of  the  lengthy  document,  which  concludes  with  the  significant  sentence:  "The  law 
of  God  prohibits  the  doing  of  evil  that  good  may  come  of  it."  It  is  said  that  the  worthy 
priest  exaggerated  the  amount  of  evil,  which  he  depicted  in  frightful  hues;  yet  the  very 
excess  of  his  vehemence  is  to  be  admired  in  a  cause  so  just  and  noble. 

Not  all  the  missionaries  who  accompanied  the  conquerors  joined  Father  Las  Casas  in 
denouncing  the  cncomiendas;  on  the  contrary,  some  of  the  worst  abuses  of  the  system 
were  charged  against  the  Christian  teachers  themselves.  But,  as  a  rule,  the  priests  stood 
between  the  unfortunate  Indians  and  their  rapacious  masters,  and  protected  the  victims  of 
impatient  greed.  After  the  abolition  of  encomiendas,  when  the  natives  were  settled  in 
communities,  the  religious  orders,  to  whose  care  their  spiritual  welfare  was  chiefly 
intrusted, — the  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  Augustinians,  and  Jesuits, — had  frequent  con- 
troversies with  the  secular  authorities,  the  former  claiming  the  right  to  protect  the  Indians 
against  oppression,  while  the  latter  declared  that  this  right  was  abused  in  favor  of  the 
orders  themselves,  and  that  they  were  growing  rich  and  powerful  through  the  labor  and 
contributions  of  their  proteges.  In  a  land  where  gold  and  silver  flowed  out  of  the  moun- 
tains in  a  constant  stream,  apparently  inexhaustible,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  Church, 
which  was  the  controlling  power  in  the  state,  should  profit  by  such  blessings;  though  the 
wealth  of  the  religious  communities  was  gained  through  the  products  of  agriculture  rather 
than  those  of  the  mines.  It  was  chiefly  under  the  direction  of  the  Christian  fathers  that 
the  fields  were  cultivated  and  orchards  planted  while  the  conquerors  were  occupying 
themselves  solely  with  the  extraction  of  ores. 

The  power  of  the  clergy  has  always  been  stronger  in  Spain  than  in  any  other  Catholic 
land,  and  the  national  religion  has  been  its  most  cherished  institution  ever  since  the 
Visigoths  followed  up  their  conquest  of  the  country,  after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  by 
embracing  Christianity  early  in  the  sixth  century.  Their  ecclesiastical  synods  were  not 
only  Councils  of  the  Church  but  parliaments  of  the  realm,  and  so  great  was  the  power  of 
the  clergy  at  that  early  date,  we  are  told,  that  even  the  kings  prostrated  themselves 
before  the  bishops.  Then  followed  the  struggle  against  the  Moors,  which  was  first  a  fight 
for  independence  and  later  a  campaign  for  conquest,  but  always  a  religious  war.  It  is  not 
strange  that  the  final  victory,  won  after  a  crusade  that  lasted  eight  hundred  years,  should 
have  been  signalized  by  a  union  of  Church  and  State  in  the  closest  bonds,  and  that  the 
pride  of  the  people  should  be  concentrated  in  the  religion  they  had  so  tenaciously  upheld 
and  defended,  and  in  the  military  prowess  they  had  so  gloriously  vindicated. 

The  prestige  of  both  the  Church  and  the  army  was  at  the  zenith  when  Pizarro  con- 
quered Peru;  and  as  soon  as  Spain  took  formal  possession  of  the  country,  the  Church 


THE  CHURCH  IN  COLONIAL  DAYS 


«•? 


established  its  authority  througliout  the  land,— an  authority  that  dominated  all  the  affairs  of 
the  colony,  secular  as  well  as  spiritual.  The  viceroy  was,  in  reality,  head  of  the  government 
only  by  right  of  his  office  as  vice-patron  of  the  Church.  The  Sovereign  of  Spain,  as  patron 
of  the  Church, — an 
honor  granted  by 
Pope  Julius  IV., — 
reserved  the  right 
to  provide  all  ec- 
clesiastical bene- 
fices ;  the  building 
of  churches,  mon- 
asteries, and  other 
places  of  worship 
was  prohibited 
without  royal  li- 
cence; and  papal 
briefs,  resolutions 
of  the  generals  of 
religious  orders,  or 
any  other  decision 
issued  under  ec- 
clesiastical author- 
ity required  the 
sanction  of  the 
Council  of  the  In- 
dies to  give  it 
value.  The  vice- 
roy Toledo  was  the 
first  to  be  appoint- 
ed vice-patron  of 
the  Church,  re- 
ceiving the  royal 
seal  in  1^74.  The 
bishops  of  Peru 
were    the     chief 

authorities  in  their  dioceses,  the  priests  had  full  charge  of  the  schools,  and  the  missionaries 
represented  the  government  in  the  reducciones.  A  historian  of  the  viceroyalty  estimates  that 
the  clergy,  friars,  and  nuns  formed  more  than  the  seventh  part  of  the  entire  population  of  Lima. 
When  Pizarro  founded  the  capital  of  Peru,  his  first  act  was  to  fix  the  site  of  the  metro- 
politan church,  of  which  he,  himself,  laid  the  corner-stone.    As  materials  were  scarce  at  that 


THE  CATHEDRAL.  LIMA. 


ii6  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

time  and  there  were  few  facilities  for  such  a  work,  the  building  was  very  unpretentious, 
though  five  years  were  spent  in  its  construction.  The  ceremony  of  dedication  was 
performed  in  1540  by  Father  Valverde,  then  bishop  of  Cuzco  and  all  Peru.  According 
to  the  chronicles  of  the  period,  "the  Emperor  Charles  V.  humbly  besought  His  Holiness, 
Pope  Paul  ill.,  to  grant  the  title  of  'city'  to  the  town  denominated  'of  the  Kings,'  which 
had  been  erected  in  the  provinces  of  Peru,  and  to  establish  in  it  a  cathedral  church." 
The  pope  granted  this  request  and  made  Lima  a  metropolitan  see,  Fray  Geronimo  Loayza 
being  appointed  the  first  archbishop  of  the  colony.  Within  a  short  time  it  was  found 
necessary  to  rebuild  the  Cathedral,  and  the  work  was  begun  under  the  most  favorable 
auspices;  but  so  many  were  the  interruptions,  changes  of  plans,  and  other  causes  of  delay 
that  not  until  162^  was  the  edifice  completed,  the  consecration  being  solemnized  by 
Archbishop  Ocampo,  with  such  pomp  and  grandeur  that  the  ceremony  lasted  from  sunrise 
to  sunset.  As  soon  as  the  Spanish  sovereign  was  informed  of  the  completion  and 
consecration  of  the  Cathedral,  he  ordered  that  the  bones  of  the  Conqueror,  Francisco 
Pizarro,  should  be  disinterred  and  removed  to  the  sacred  edifice,  where  all  that  is  mortal  of 
the  great  discoverer  of  Peru  is  still  preserved. 

To  the  construction  and  adornment  of  the  Cathedral  of  Lima,  Archbishops  Loayza, 
Santo  Toribio  de  Mogrovejo,  and  Bartolome  Lobo  Guerrero  devoted  their  talents  and  their 
fortune  with  pious  zeal ;  Archbishop  Loayza  made  the  church  a  gift  of  rich  ornaments  in 
silver,  and  a  custodia,  or  tabernacle,  of  gold  and  silver,  valued  at  several  thousand  dollars. 
The  cost  of  construction  of  this  magnificent  edifice  was  estimated  at  half  a  million  dollars 
gold,  and  the  interior  was  a  repository  of  such  enormous  riches  that  their  reputed  value 
passes  credibility.  The  balustrades  surrounding  the  altar, — which  was  itself  a  marvel  of 
exquisite  wood-carving, — as  well  as  the  pipes  of  the  organ,  were  of  silver,  and  the  candle- 
sticks, also  of  silver,  were  of  remarkable  size  and  weight.  The  wood-carving  of  the  chancel 
was  not  excelled  even  by  that  of  the  famous  Cathedral  of  Seville,  The  terrible  earthquake 
of  1746  converted  the  great  structure  into  a  mountain  of  ruins,  though  the  present  edifice, 
which  is  built  on  the  same  site,  is  an  imposing  monument  of  architecture  still,  after  the 
lapse  of  more  than  a  century  and  a  half,  and  notwithstanding  the  destructive  effects  of  time 
and  the  elements.  It  overlooks  the  principal  plaza  of  the  city,  occupying  the  eastern  side  of 
the  square.  The  Cathedral  has  five  naves,  each  with  nine  arches,  or  vaults,  and  along  the 
sides  are  ten  chapels,  in  one  of  which  repose  the  remains  of  Pizarro.  The  main  altar  occu- 
pies the  centre  of  the  principal  nave,  and  although  not  now  so  rich  in  gold  and  silver  orna- 
ments as  formerly,  it  still  represents  a  fortune,  being  of  silver,  as  are  also  the  magnificent 
candlesticks  that  adorn  it.  The  wonderfully  carved  pulpit  and  chancel,  of  mahogany  and 
cedar,  have  survived  the  numerous  catastrophes  through  which  the  venerable  edifice  has 
passed,  and  show  only  the  wear  caused  through  their  use  by  generations  of  worshippers. 

When  Archbishop  Loayza,  the  first  incumbent  of  the  see  of  Lima,  died,  in  1^7^,  his 
successor  was  not  appointed  until  three  years  later,  when  Archbishop  Toribio  Mogrovejo 
was  named  for  the  exalted  office.     His  extraordinary  simplicity  and  piety  were  recognized 


THE  CHURCH  IN  COLONIAL   DAYS 


117 


even  in  a  capital  so  gay  and  pleasure-loving  as  the  City  of  tlie  Kings,  and  his  name  became 
a  synonym  of  goodness.  Many  incidents  are  related  of  his  charitable  acts,  done  without 
ostentation,  and  solely  from  brotherly  love  and  Christian  kindness.  It  is  said  that  one 
night  he  was  carrying  on  his  back  a  man  whom  he  had  found  wounded  in  the  street,  when 
the  watchman  called  out  in  peremptory  tones:  "Who  goes  there?"  "Toribio,"  was  the 
trunquil  answer,  the  guardian  of  the  law  immediately  recognizing  the  good  Samaritan.  The 
story  of  his  saintly  life  and  his  many  works  of  benevolence  reveals  the  spirit  of  self- 
sacritlce  and  devotion  which  characterizes  the  best  type  of  Spanish  priest.  Buckle,  in 
his  history  of  the 
civilization  of  Eu- 
rope, says,  in  ref- 
erence to  the  long 
list  of  holy  men 
who  have  made 
Spain  famous 
throughout  the 
centuries  as  the 
land  of  beatos : 
"No  other  Euro- 
pean country  has 
produced  so  many 
ardent  and  dis- 
interested mis- 
sionaries, zealous, 
self-denying  mar- 
tyrs, who  have 
cheerfully  sacri- 
ficed their  lives  in 
order  to  propagate 
truths  which  they 
thought  necessary 
to  be  known." 
Not  only  in  the 
ranks  of  the  hum- 
ble missionaries, 
who     penetrated 

the  forests  of  the  Amazon  and  made  their  way  through  the  cafions  and  across  the  mountain 
passes  of  the  Andes  to  fmd  their  flocks  among  the  "  idolators,"  but  in  the  highest  princes 
of  the  realm,  descendants  of  kings  and  lords  of  proud  domains,  were  to  be  found  examples 
of  Christian  piety  and  unselfishness  worthy  of  the  reverence  of  posterity. 


INTERIOR   OF   THE   CATHEDRAL.   LIMA. 


ii8 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  hlElV  PERU 


Archbishop  Toribio  began  his  work  by  learning  the  Quichua  language,  so  that  he  might 
be  the  better  able  to  acquaint  himself  with  the  condition  and  needs  of  the  Indians,  whom 
he  protected  and  guarded  with  especial  care.    As  soon  as  he  could  converse  in  Quichua,  he 


CHURCH    AND    PLAZUbLA   OF   SAN    FRANCISCO,   LIMA. 


Started  out  on  a  long  journey  through  the  interior  of  Peru,  on  foot,  accompanied  only  by 
two  of  his  chaplains,  and  taking  a  packmule  to  carry  his  baggage.  His  route  led  him  along 
the  sandy  plains  of  the  coast,  across  snow-clad  mountains  and  into  the  forests  of  the  Upper 
Amazon.  As  he  passed  through  the  various  towns,  he  visited  the  churches,  monasteries, 
and  convents,  holding  services  and  encouraging  the  labors  of  his  people,  while  he  reproved 
all  abuses  of  power,  and  used  his  high  authority  to  remedy  the  evils  that  necessarily  crept 
into  a  system  so  vast  in  scope  and  scattered  over  an  almost  untraversable  territory.  In  the 
remote  districts,  the  devoted  pastor  visited  the  little  cho{as,  or  huts,  of  the  natives,  instructed 
the  inmates  in  the  catechism  and  administered  the  sacraments.  Not  only  did  the  archbishop 
make  himself  familiar  with  everything  connected  with  his  extensive  diocese,  but  he  held 
two  diocesan  synods  and  three  ecclesiastical  councils,  for  the  purpose  of  considering  church 


THE  CHURCH  IN  COLONIAL  DAYS 


119 


matters  of  importance;  he  also  founded  a  seminary  in  Lima  for  the  instruction  of  the  clergy, 
which  was  afterward  named  the  Seminary  of  Santo  Toribio.  While  engaged  in  his  apostolic 
labors  in  the  north,  the  illustrious  prelate  was  attacked  by  fever  and  died  on  the  23d  of 
March,  1606,  at  the  age  of  seventy.  In  recognition  of  his  saintly  life  and  character,  the 
Church  canonized  him  a  century  later. 

A  contemporary  of  Saint  Toribio  is  celebrated  in  the  annals  of  the  Church  as  the  only 
American  Saint  of  the  Calendar,  known  to  Catholics  as  Saint  Rose  of  Lima,  the  patron  of 
the  Peruvian  capital  and  of  all  Catholic  America.  She  was  born  in  1 5'86  in  the  city  of  Lima 
and  was  baptized  by  Archbishop  Toribio  with  the  name  of  Rosa.  From  her  girlhood,  she 
practised  the  most  austere  piety,  devoting  her  young  life  exclusively  to  the  duties  of 
religion.  She  was  very  beautiful,  and  as  she  grew  older  many  admirers  sought  her  in 
marriage,  her  refusal  being  greatly  resented  by  her  parents,  who  treated  the  poor  girl  with 


CONVENT  OF  SANTO   DOMINGO.  CUZCO,  BUILT  ON   THE   FOUNDATIONS  OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF   THE  SUN. 


cruelty  in  order  to  punish  her.  At  last,  however,  they  were  won  by  her  angelic  goodness 
and  permitted  her  to  enter  a  convent  of  the  Dominican  order,  where  she  remained  until  her 
death  in  16 17.    The  30th  day  of  August,  her  feast  day,  is  still  observed  in  Lima  with  great 


I20 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE^V  PERU 


ceremony.  The  canonization  of  Saint  Rose  was  decreed  by  Pope  Clement  X.  in  167 1,  and 
its  celebration  took  place  in  Lima  during  the  government  of  the  Count  de  Lemos,  with  such 
brilliant  and  imposing  ceremonies  as  the  City  of  the  Kings  was  accustomed  to  provide  in 

those  days.  The  pontifical  bull  was 
read  in  the  Cathedral,  in  front  of  a 
marble  statue  of  the  saint,  which 
stood  on  a  silver  pedestal  and  was 
adorned  with  priceless  jewels.  The 
following  day  the  image  was  carried 
in  a  procession  to  its  present  resting 
place  in  the  Dominican  church,  where 
an  altar  is  dedicated  to  Saint  Rose. 
This  church  is  one  of  the  oldest  and 
most  interesting  edifices  in  Lima,  and 
has  been  as  richly  adorned  with  sil- 
ver at  various  times  as  the  Cathedral 
itself.  A  silver  altar  of  Our  Lady  of  the 
Rosary  which  stands  at  the  foot  of  the 
presbytery,  on  the  right,  is  superb ;  in 
the  centre  of  the  altar  is  the  niche  of 
the  Madonna,  of  exquisite  workman- 
ship, her  rosary  being  of  large  pearls. 
On  the  feast  day  of  the  Virgin  this 
altar  is  beautiful  beyond  description. 
The  Dominican  order  came  into 
especial  prominence  in  ecclesiastical 
matters  in  Peru  during  the  seventeenth  century  through  its  persistent  determination  not  to 
accept  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  which  was  proclaimed  throughout  the 
Spanish  possessions  by  order  of  King  Philip  11.  The  controversy  rose  to  a  great  height 
in  Spanish  America,  and  processions  of  thousands  of  people  marched  through  the  streets  of 
Lima  singing  in  chorus  La  virgen  ftie  concehida  sin  pecado  original. — "The  Virgin  was  con- 
ceived without  original  sin."  So  enduring  was  the  impression  created  on  the  public  mind 
by  the  controversy,  that  to  this  day  the  popular  salutation  in  some  of  the  country  districts 
of  Paraguay  and  Argentina  is  "Ave  Maria!"  to  which  the  invariable  response  is  "Sin  pecado 
concehida!"  It  was  not,  however,  until  18^4,  as  is  well  known,  that  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception was  declared  a  dogma  of  the  Church,  by  Pope  Pius  IX. 

The  missionaries  of  Saint  Dominic  were  among  the  first  to  come  to  America,  the 
venerable  Las  Casas  being  of  this  order  as  well  as  Fray  Valverde,  Bishop  of  Cuzco.  Las 
Casas  had  been  named  for  the  diocese  of  Cuzco,  but  he  was  too  intent  on  his  work  of 
reform  to  desire  a  benefice,  and  Fray  Solano  of  the  Franciscan  order  was  appointed  to  the 


CLOISTER  OF   LA   MERCED,  CUZCO. 


THE  CHURCH  IN  COLONIAL  DAYS 


121 


office.  The  Franciscans  were  prominent  during  the  entire  period  of  the  viceroyalty  for 
their  extensive  pioneer  work  in  the  wilds  of  America,  their  devout  pilgrims  traversing  the 
southern  continent  from  Panama  to  Cape  Horn.  The  saintly  Fray  Francisco  Solano,  who 
was  a  contemporary  of  Saint  Toribio  and  Saint  Rose  of  Lima,  made  a  journey,  barefooted, 
walking  the  whole  distance,  from  Paraguay,  through  the  Chaco— which  is  still  inhabited  by 
savage  tribes,  the  terror  of  travellers— and  across  what  is  now  Bolivia  to  the  headwaters 
of  the  Amazon ;  his  life  was 
spent  in  Christianizing  the 
savage  tribes  of  the  remote 
interior,  a  task  much  more 
difficult  than  that  of  instruct- 
ing the  cultured  Indians  of 
the  Inca's  country.  He  died 
in  1610  and  was  canonized 
by  the  Church. 

The  church,  chapels,  and 
convents  of  the  Franciscans 
are  the  largest  and  hand- 
somest in  Lima.  It  is  said 
that  more  than  two  million 
dollars  were  spent  in  the  con- 
struction of  their  printipal  edi- 
fice, wliich  was  built  in  the 
sixteenth  century  and  recon- 
structed after  the  earthquake 
of  1746,  the  interior  being 
richly  ornamented ;  the  high 
altar  was  encased  with  silver 
and  the  niche  of  the  Madonna 
beautifully  wrought  of  the 
same  material.  The  cloisters 
of  the  convent  are  supported 
on  stone  pillars,  the  roof 
being  of  panel-work,  and, 
with  the  beams,  exquisitely 
carved.  In  colonial  days  it 
used  to  be  said  that  the  four 

best  offices  in  Lima  were  the  viceroyalty,  the  archbishopric,  the  ecclesiastical  province  of 
the  Dominicans  and  the  office  of  the  Mother  Abbess  of  Concepcion.  This  nunnery  com- 
manded an  income  of  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  annually,  the  dowry  of  each  nun,  on 


CHURCH   OF   SAN   AGUSTIN,   LIMA. 


122 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


taking  the  veil,  being  three  thousand  dollars.     The  order  of  San  Agustin  built  many 
handsome  churches  and  convents  during  the  viceroyalty,  and  the  church  of  Nuestra  Sefiora 

de  la  Merced  (Our  Lady  of  Mercy)  is  still 
among  the  most  attractive  of  the  city's  sacred 
edifices.  There  are  at  present  sixty-six  reli- 
gious establishments  existing  in  Lima,  twelve 
of  which  are  nunneries,  each  with  its  respec- 
tive church. 

The  Jesuits,  who  first  came  to  Peru  in 
1^67,  were  conspicuously  noted  for  their 
scholarship  and  their  great  ability  as  teachers 
among  the  Indians.  In  every  city  they  estab- 
lished a  church  and  a  college;  and  at  Juli,  on 
the  border  of  Lake  Titicaca,  they  founded  a 
training  school  for  missionaries,  in  i^']']. 
Here  the  students  were  taught  the  native 
tongues,  and  were  provided  with  catechisms, 
grammars,  dictionaries,  and  other  text  books 
necessary  for  their  work,  the  order  having 
introduced  the  printing  press  into  Peru  at  that 
early  date.  The  first  book  issued  from  the 
press  of  Juli  was  a  catechism,  which  is  now 
a  valued  possession  of  the  National  Library  of  Lima.  Among  their  number  were  some  of 
the  most  celebrated  historians  of  the  Conquest,  as  well  as  noted  naturalists,  geographers, 
and  philologists.  Their  institutions  became  renowned,  especially  those  established  in 
Misiones,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  ruins  of  whicli  are  visited  by  hundreds  of 
tourists  annually.  They  accumulated  such  enormous  wealth  and  their  influence  was  so 
powerful  througliout  colonial  Spain,  that  a  royal  decree  of  1769  ordered  their  banish- 
ment. The  command  of  the  king  was  carried  out  with  remarkable  secrecy  and  expedition 
under  the  direction  of  the  Viceroy  Amat.  The  chief  difficulty  threatened  the  attempt 
to  arrest  the  Jesuits  of  the  capital  and  convey  them  on  board  the  vessel  which  had 
been  sent  to  the  Peruvian  port  to  receive  them.  However,  the  task  was  completed 
between  midnight  and  sunrise,  the  viceroy  himself  heading  the  troops, — which  were 
divided  into  four  sections,  each  with  a  numerous  force  of  infantry  and  cavalry — and 
marching  to  the  four  strongholds  of  the  Jesuits  in  the  city,  viz.,  the  convent  of  San  Pablo, 
the  Novitiate,  the  house  of  the  Desamparados  and  that  of  the  Cercado.  As  soon  as  the 
door  of  each  institution  opened,  the  purpose  of  the  viceroy's  visit  was  made  known  and 
the  establishment  was  placed  under  guard  of  the  royal  troops  until  the  inmates  could 
be  taken  on  board.  The  same  method  was  followed  in  Chuquisaca,  Potosi,  and  in  Chile, 
though  many  of  the  unfortunate  exiles  met  their  death  while  crossing  the  snowbound 


CHOIR  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL  OF  CUZCO. 


THE  CHURCH  IN  COLONIAL   DAYS 


I2J 


passes  of  tlie  Andes  or  in  transportation  by  sea.     Sixty  were  drowned  on  the  voyage 
from  Valparaiso  to  Callao,  and  the  loss  of  life  from  shipwreck  and  other  causes  greatly 
reduced  the   number  who   arrived   at 
their  destination. 

At  the  time  of  their  expulsion  from 
Peru,  the  Jesuits  were  in  possession  of 
the  college  of  San  Pablo,  the  Novitiate, 
the  house  of  probation  of  the  Cer- 
cado,  the  house  of  the  Desamparados, 
and  the  royal  colleges  of  San  Martin  and 
the  Caciques,  in  Lima ;  the  colleges  of 
the  Transfiguration,  San  Bernardo,  and 
San  Francisco  de  Borja  in  Cuzco;  the 
celebrated  University  of  San  Francisco 
Javier  and  the  royal  college  of  San  Juan  ■ 
Bautista  in  Chuquisaca;  and  colleges  in 
Potosi,  Arequipa,  Cochabamba,  Bella- 
vista,  Huancavelica,  Huamanga,  lea, 
Moquegua,  Oruro,  La  Paz,  Pisco,  and 
Trujillo,  as  well  as  the 'missions  of  Mojos 
and  Chiquitos,  the  residence  of  Santa 
Cruz  de  la  Sierra  and  five  parishes  of 
Juli.  The  landed  estates  of  the  Jesuits 
numbered  more  than  two  hundred  at 
the  time  of  their  banishment,  and  were 

valued  at  six  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars.  It  was  believed  that  the  order  succeeded 
in  hiding  vast  treasure,  and  the  government  made  a  persistent  search,  but  it  has  never 
been  found,  nor  is  there  anything  to  prove  that  all  their  wealth  was  not  employed  in 
the  support  of  their  colleges,  missions  and  other  immense  and  constantly  increasing 
religious  establishments.  The  estates  of  the  banished  order  were  sold  at  auction,  and  the 
proceeds,  together  with  the  gold  and  silver  confiscated  by  the  Crown,  were  used  to  pay 
the  costs  of  their  deportation,  amounting  to  half  a  million  dollars,  the  surplus,  eight  hundred 
thousand  dollars,  being  sent  to  the  King  of  Spain.  The  sacred  relics  and  ornaments  of  the 
temples  were  distributed  among  the  public  institutions,  and  the  collections  of  books  were 
given  to  the  University  of  Lima  to  form  the  basis  of  a  public  library.  All  the  revenues  of 
the  order  reverted  to  the  Crown. 

Under  the  viceroyalty  there  were  five  bishoprics  subject  to  the  metropolitan  See  of 
Lima,  the  first  having  been  established  in  Cuzco  and  the  second  in  Lima,  at  the  time  of  the 
Conquest,  to  which  were  added  those  of  Trujillo  (1611),  Arequipa  (1612)  and  Huamanga 
(161^).    in  each  diocese  the  ecclesiastical  government  was  divided  into  parochial  districts, 


OLD  CHURCH   AT   URCOS. 


124 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE^V  PERU 


under  the  authority  of  the  priests.  The  religious  labors  of  the  Christian  fathers  were  by  no 
means  light  during  the  early  days,  as  the  former  subjects  of  the  Children  of  the  Sun,  though 
apparently  easily  converted,  confounded  the  worship  of  God  with  that  of  Pachacamac, 
giving  a  most  unorthodox  interpretation  to  the  dogma  of  the  Trinity  and  the  Immaculate 
Conception. 

The  oifice  of  the  Inquisition  was  established  in  Lima  during  the  sixteenth  century  and 
its  victims  included  all  ranks  and  classes  of  society,  though  the  Indians  were  exempt  from 
its  terrors.  In  the  present  day,  such  an  institution  as  the  Inquisition  seems  a  blot  on 
religion ;  but  centuries  ago,  it  was  regarded  as  an  instrument  of  great  power  in  keeping  the 
Church  free  from  the  contamination  of  evil  beliefs.  Its  most  earnest  and  relentless  sup- 
porters were  not  hypocrites,  bent  on  revenge,  but  enthusiasts,  who  believed  they  were 
justified  in  taking  even  the  cruellest  measures  to  protect  the  faith.  The  seventeenth 
century  was  an  intolerant  age,  and  at  the  same  time  that  the  Inquisition  was  holding  the 
auto  de  fe  with  fatal  frequency,  the  Salem  Puritans  were  burning  witches,  and  the  Kirk  of 
Scotland  was  banishing  one  of  its  members  for  having  travelled  through  a  Catholic  country. 

The  viceroy  Abascal  received  the  order  from  the  .Cortes  of  Spain  to  abolish  the 
Inquisition  in  the  year  1811;  and  the  hall  in  which  so  many  judgments  had  been  pro- 
nounced contrary  to  the  best  laws  of  human  liberty,  was  abandoned  by  the  Holy  Office, 
to  be  occupied  in  years  to  come  by  the  representative  authorities  of  a  government  pledged 
to  recognize  the  right  of  every  man  to  "life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness."  The 
same  year  that  witnessed  the  abolition  of  the  Santo  Oficio,  saw  the  first  military  gathering 
of  the  patriots  of  Tacna,  led  by  a  Limeilo,  preparing  to  join  the  forces  of  their  fellow 
colonists  on  the  tableland  of  Alto  Peru,  where  they  were  to  encounter  the  royalist  army. 


CHURCH    OF   THE    COMPANIA    AT    PISCO. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


THE   OVERTHROW   OF   SPANISH    AUTHORITY 


DERU,  the  centre  and  stronghold  of  Spanish 
colonial  power  and  prestige  in  South 
America  for  three  centuries,  was  governed 
by  conditions  tliat  did  not  prevail  in  the  other 
provinces.  The  elements  out  of  which  the 
population  was  formed  were  unique  in  char- 
acter. The  Conquest  brought  under  the 
dominion  of  the  viceroyalty  a  people  of  such 
ancient  culture  that  no  period  could  be  fixed 
as  to  its  genesis,  and  of  an  origin  so  envel- 
oped in  mystery  that  no  certain  knowledge 
existed  regarding  its  derivation, — a  people 
who  had  lived  for  centuries  under  absolute 
despotism  and  yet  had  developed  a  gentle 
obedience  and  submission  such  as  could  only 
exist  where  the  tasks  were  performed  by 
willing  servants  of  a  beloved  master.  The 
crime  of  the  Conquest,  so  deeply  resented 
by  the  princes  of  royal  Inca  blood,  could  not 
be  appreciated  in  its  full  significance  by  the 
millions,  who  were  deprived  of  no  rights, 
since  they  possessed  none,  but  were  simply 
taken  from  the  welcome  task  of  tilling  the  farms  of  their  "deity-king"  and  put  to  the  unac- 
customed labor  of  the  mines,  under  a  new  master,  pitiless  in  his  tyranny  and  ruthless  in 
destroying  their  sacred  idols.  The  saddest  effects  of  the  Conquest  on  these  people  appeared 
when  their  obedience  and  submission  lost  its  refined  quality,  under  cruelty  and  neglect,  and 

degenerated  into  servility  and  apathy.    The  Indian's  idea  of  supreme  authority  was  in 

127 


STATUE   OF    BOLIVAR,    LIMA. 


,28  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEM^  PERU 

accordance  with  what  he  had  been  taught  under  a  theocratic  government  and,  therefore,  had 
its  fountain-head  in  religious  worship.  The  Catholic  Church  performed  its  mission  in  Peru, 
not  only  by  winning  the  natives  to  the  new  faith,  but  by  protecting  them  from  unscrupulous 
corregidores,  who  abused  the  law  of  repartimiento — which  gave  these  oificials  the  privilege  of 
furnishing  stores  to  the  natives  at  a  fair  price — and  forced  the  Indians  to  pay  for  articles  they 
could  never  use;  many  an  insurrection  arising  from  these  abuses  was  stifled  through  the 
influence  of  the  priests,  who  were  the  highest  authority  recognized  by  the  Indians,  it  is 
certain,  however,  that  the  former  sun-worshippers  never  quite  comprehended  the  Christian 
doctrine,  merely  adapting  their  beliefs  to  its  demands;  the  Indian  of  the  sierra  still  salutes 
the  rising  sun,  and  kneels  to  pray,  as,  on  his  way  to  Cuzco,  he  first  obtains  a  view  of  the 
sacred  city,  or  when,  leaving  it,  he  sees  its  sunlit  temples  for  the  last  time  from  the  neigh- 
boring heights. 

While  the  native  element  of  the  population  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest  was  repre- 
sented by  a  race  apparently  very  old  and  lacking  resistant  vitality,  the  conquerors  and  their 
followers,  who  constituted  the  Spanish  element,  represented  a  strong  and  independent 
people,  who  were  still  enjoying  the  noontide  of  their  vigor,  having  recently  won  sup>remacy 
against  the  most  powerful  enemies  by  the  might  of  their  swords  and  in  defence  of  the 
sovereignty  of  their  faith ;  the  Spanish  monarch  of  those  times  received  the  homage  of 
his  people  chiefly  because  he  represented  in  his  person  the  majesty  and  glory  of  the 
national  religion.  The  Spaniards  were  more  fervid  in  the  faith  than  their  rulers  themselves; 
and  in  the  controversies  that  arose  between  the  ecclesiastical  and  secular  authorities  during 
the  period  of  the  viceroyalty,  the  Church  could  always  count  on  the  sympathy  of  the 
masses.  As  the  number  of  American-born  priests  increased  in  the  colonial  dioceses, 
the  character  of  their  teaching  fostered  a  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  land  of  their  birth,  and 
encouraged  the  development  of  a  new  nationality,  the  population  of  which  was  composed 
not  only  of  the  Indian  and  the  Spaniard  but  of  the  mestizo,  of  mixed  Spanish  and  Indian 
blood,  who  possessed  the  predominating  characteristics  of  both  parents,  and  had  a  double 
right  to  the  title  of  patriot.  In  the  war  of  Independence,  the  mestizo  did  noble  service;  and 
if  the  Criollos,  as  the  Peruvians  of  pure  Spanish  descent  are  called,  proved  themselves 
splendid  generals,  there  were  no  better  fighters  in  the  ranks  than  the  mestizos,  many  of 
whom  became  distinguished  in  the  history  of  the  revolution  for  their  courage  and 
endurance,  while  a  few  rose  to  glorious  heights  of  soldierly  valor  and  left  their  names 
engraved  on  the  heart  of  a  grateful  nation.  Of  the  minor  elements,  the  negroes  and  the 
{ambos  (the  latter  of  mixed  Indian  and  negro  origin)  were  the  most  important,  though  it  is 
said  the  number  of  negroes  brought  into  Peru  did  not  exceed  fifty  thousand  altogether. 

The  only  common  ground  on 'which  conqueror  and  conquered  in  Peru  could  meet  was 
a  reverence  for  religion  and  a  recognition  of  the  sanctity  of  caste.  From  time  immemorial 
the  Indians  had  lived  under  this  spell,  and  the  Castilian  knew  no  law  above  the  will  of  the 
Church  and  the  aristocracy,  which,  in  Spain,  were  long  synonymous.  It  has  been  said  that 
caste,  more  than  anything  else  was  responsible  for  the  wonderful  hold  Spain  had  on  her 


THE  OkER'/HROIV  OF  SPANISH  AUTHORITY 


129 


colonies.  Caste  ruled  in  everytiiing — in  religion,  the  army,  and  society — and  the  masses 
bowed  in  willing  submission  to  an  aristocracy,  which,  if  it  did  not  claim  celestial  origin,  at 
least  became  the  interpreter  of  the  divine  will  to  a  listening  nation.  It  was  this  spirit  of 
reverence  which  made  Peru  send  its  shiploads  of  gold  to  Spain,  though  receiving  nothing 
in  return. 

The  great  distance  that  lay  between  Spain  and  America  rendered  it  impossible  for  the 
mother  country  to  be  closely  in  touch  with  the  colonies  of  the  Pacific  Coast:  and,  as  time 
went  on,  the  traditions  of  their  ancestors  became  dimmed  in  the  minds  of  succeeding 


PLAZA  OF   THE   INQUISITION.  LIMA. 


generations  of  Spanish  Americans.  Gradually  the  influence  of  the  clergy  and  nobility  of 
Peruvian  birth  began  to  be  exerted  in  patriotic  measures,  in  17^0,  schools  were  placed  in 
charge  of  the  secular  clergy,  who  were  nearly  all  native  Peruvians,  with  a  natural  sympathy 
for  the  welfare  of  their  country.  The  enormous  prestige  of  the  home  government  suffered 
successive  shocks  in  consequence  of  scandals  that  rang  from  one  end  of  the  colony  to  the 
other,  reporting  evils  practised  by  the  highest  colonial  officials,  both  of  the  Church  and 
State.  The  Inquisition,  the  banishment  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  declining  influence  of  Spain 
among  the  European  powers,  all  tended  toward  a  weakening  of  the  royal  authority ;  and 
though  the  effects  were  more  perceptible  in  the  provinces  remote  from  the  centre  of 


I30  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

Spanish  power,  yet  even  in  Lima,  under  the  very  shadow  of  the  viceroy's  palace,  the 
patriotic  spirit  found  expression.  In  the  tertulias  of  the  Spanish  American  nobility,  as  well 
as  in  the  private  councils  of  educators — who  were  forbidden  to  bring  into  the  country  any 
scientific  books,  or  even  the  necessary  apparatus  for  teaching  physics,  astronomy,  and 
mechanics — the  question  of  national  independence  began  to  be  discussed,  as  early  as, the 
period  of  the  French  Revolution.  Dr.  Toribio  Rodriguez  de  Mendoza,  rector  of  the  college 
of  San  Carlos,  and  Bishop  Pedro  Jose  Chavez,  of  Arequipa,  were  powerful  advocates  of 
reform;  and  the  bishop's  disciples,  Luna  Pizarro,  afterward  Archbishop  of  Lima,  and 
Gonzalez  Vigil,  exercised  great  influence  in  favor  of  national  liberty.  Dr.  Unanue,  president 
of  the  School  of  Medicine,  Don  Jose  Gregorio  Paredes,  Don  Gavino  Chacaltana  of  lea  and 
Don  Jose  Pezet,  editor  of  La  Gaceta  de  Lima,  were  among  the  leading  men  of  science  and 
letters  who  declared  themselves  in  favor  of  independence,  though  their  reunions  had  to  be 
suspended  in  consequence  of  the  viceroy's  opposition.  Two  young  lawyers,  named  Pardo 
and  Silva,  were  arrested  for  holding  patriotic  meetings,  the  former  being  banished  and  the 
latter  imprisoned  for  ten  years.  Secret  societies  were  formed  under  the  protection  of 
the  colonial  nobility,  and  even  in  the  drawing-rooms  of  noble  dames  the  forbidden  topic 
was  discussed.  The  cause  had  its  innocent  victims,  as  all  great  reforms  have  had, — 
visionaries,  whose  aspirations  were  their  only  crime.  Jose  Gabriel  Aguilar,  of  Huanuco, 
and  Manuel  Ubalde,  of  Cuzco,  were  put  to  death  in  the  plaza  of  Cuzco,  in  i8o^,  for  having 
interpreted  a  dream  to  signify  that  America  would  rise  up  against  Spain  and  that  they 
would  be  the  chiefs  of  the  insurrection. 

The  emancipation  of  the  Spanish-Americans,  especially  in  the  viceroyalty  of  Peru,  was 
not  the  result  of  a  development  out  of  a  condition  of  dependence ;  it  came  about  rather  in 
consequence  of  a  disillusion,  which  turned  them  from  the  unquestioning  allegiance  they  had 
always  shown  their  sovereigns,  and  led  them  to  demand  a  recognition  to  which  they  had  long 
been  entitled.  With  the  enormous  wealth  which  they  had  held  in  their  possession  from  the 
time  of  the  Conquest,  the  heirs  to  the  Inca's  treasures  could  have  established  their  inde- 
pendence centuries  earlier;  but  the  same  sentiment  that  made  Gonzalo  Pizarro's  followers 
flock  to  the  standard  of  Pedro  de  la  Gasca,  when  he  arrived  in  the  simple  garb  of  a  priest, 
with  the  king's  pardon  in  his  hand,  kept  them  blindly  obedient  to  the  monarchy  for  three 
centuries,  until  the  march  of  civilization  drew  them  away  from  the  worship  of  aristocratic 
ideals  and  their  attention  became  directed  to  the  existence  of  new  conditions  which  were 
already  shaping  the  destiny  of  modern  empires. 

Since  the  accession  of  the  Bourbons  to  the  Spanish  throne,  when  there  were  "no  longer 
any  Pyrenees  between  France  and  Spain,"  the  influence  of  less  conservative  neighbors  had 
increased  within  the  hitherto  exclusive  circles  of  the  proudest  aristocracy  of  Europe.  The 
ideas  of  the  French  liberals  had  penetrated  even  into  its  universities,  in  spite  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion, and  had  crossed  the  seas  to  the  colonies  of  America.  There  was  something  in  the 
atmosphere  of  the  New  World  which  fostered  the  growth  of  liberal  sentiments.  News  of 
the  independence  of  the  North  American  colonies,  as  well  as  echoes  of  the  French  revolution, 


THE  OFERTHROtV  OF  SPANISH  AUTHORITY  iji 

stirred  the  imagination  of  patriotic  Spanish-Americans,  and  aroused  in  the  hearts  of  a  few 
determined  souls  an  unquenchable  desire  to  lead  their  compatriots  out  of  the  bondage  of 
monarchical  rule,  that  their  country  might  enjoy  the  blessings  of  national  independence. 
For  years  before  their  purpose  became  generally  known,  it  was  nourished  in  secret,  and 
when  the  opportunity  arose  to  proclaim  it,  the  plans  of  campaign  were  quickly  matured 
and  put  in  operation  in  Alto  Peru  and  Quito,  throughout  the  viceroyalties  of  Santa  Fe  and 
Buenos  Aires,  and  in  Chile,  the  patriotic  armies  finally  concentrating  their  forces  in  Peru 
itself,  the  first  and  last  stronghold  of  viceregal  authority  in  Soutli  America. 

During  the  government  of  the  Viceroy  Abascal,  whose  administration  lasted  from  1806 
to  1816,  events  occurred  in  Spain  which  precipitated  the  revolution  in  South  America,  though 
under  all  circumstances  it  could  not  have  been  long  delayed.  Napoleon  had  taken  advantage 
of  the  debility  and  corruption  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  under  Charles  IV.  to  invade  Spain, 
hoping  that  the  flight  of  the  Braganzas  to  America  would  be  followed  by  that  of  the  Bour- 
bons, and  that  the  sceptres  of  both  Spain  and  Portugal  would  thus  easily  be  placed  within 
his  grasp.  Charles,  however,  abdicated,  in  1808,  in  favor  of  his  son,  Ferdinand  VII.;  and, 
in  order  to  carry  out  his  ambitious  designs.  Napoleon  was  obliged  to  resort  to  perfidy. 
After  attracting  the  monarch  and  his  father  to  Bayonne  with  specious  promises,  he  sent 
General  Murat  to  occupy  Madrid  at  the  point  of  the  sword.  All  Spain  was  roused  to 
rebellion  against  the  invader,  but  the  arrival  of  Napoleon  himself  with  his  veterans  secured 
a  final  victory  for  the  French,  and  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  crowned  king,  orders  being  sent 
out  from  Bayonne  that  the  Spanish-American  colonists  should  transfer  their  allegiance  to 
the  new  ruler. 

By  a  decree  of  Charles  V.,  in  i^p,  confirmed  by  his  successor  in  1^63,  the  American 
colonies  were  authorized,  in  cases  of  emergency,  to  convoke  general  Juntas  or  political 
assemblies ;  and  in  the  present  crisis,  when  the  imprisonment  of  their  rightful  sovereign 
had  caused  the  authority  of  the  Crown  to  be  suspended,  this  right  was  exercised,  in  order 
to  save  the  colonies  from  the  yoke  of  a  usurping  power.  The  leaders  of  the  revolution  saw 
beyond  this  purpose  the  greater  one,  which  was  to  achieve  the  final  independence  of  the 
colonies.  But  the  masses  could  not  be  led  into  any  radical  measures  against  their  sover- 
eign. The  influence  of  the  monarchy,  which  had  excited  strong  religious  as  well  as  political 
claims  to  their  allegiance  for  three  centuries,  was  all-powerful  on  the  minds  of  a  naturally 
conservative  and  loyal  people;  and  it  was  only  through  fidelity  to  their  king  that  the 
Spanish-Americans  were  first  induced  to  take  up  arms  against  the  constituted  authorities  of 
their  country. 

The  result  of  the  convocation  of  government  Juntas  in  the  various  colonial  aipitals  was 
a  general  declaration  of  loyalty  to  the  banished  King  Ferdinand,  and  a  refusal  to  recognize 
the  authority  of  Spain  so  long  as  its  government  remained  in  the  power  of  the  usurper.  In 
Peru,  all  the  vigilance  of  the  viceroy  was  employed  in  stifling  the  efforts  of  the  patriots, 
which  became  ever  more  persistent.  In  18 10,  a  young  nobleman  of  Lima,  Don  Jose 
de  la  Riva-Aguero,  the  leader  of  one  of  the  secret  societies  formed  for  the  purpose  of 


132  •      THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEW  PERU 

promoting  the  revolutionary  cause,  was  taken  prisoner  and  banished  to  the  interior.  Another 
colonial  grandee,  Don  Jose  Baquijano,  Count  de  Vista  Florida,  a  poet  and  historian,  the  son 
of  rich  parents,  joined  the  patriots  and  used  his  talents  in  behalf  of  the  cause  of  freedom, 
his  influence  contributing  to  increase  its  popularity  among  the  aristocracy.  The  Spanish 
government  having  proclaimed  liberty  of  the  press  in  1810,  a  patriotic  newspaper  was 
started,  called  El  Peruano,  but  it  was  immediately  suppressed  by  the  Viceroy  Abascal. 
When  the  order  arrived  for  the  abolition  of  the  Inquisition,  the  people  went  en  masse  to  the 
building  in  which  the  court  had  been  held,  and  ransacked  its  rooms,  breaking  to  pieces 
the  instruments  of  torture  and  destroying  the  archives. 

Royalist  troops  had  to  be  sent  to  Quito  in  1809  to  oppose  the  patriots,  who  had  driven 
out  the  chief  authority  and  had  assumed  the  national  government;  and  an  army  was  also 
despatched,  under  command  of  General  Goyeneche,  to  Alto  Peru,  where  the  revolutionists 
had  imprisoned  the  president  of  the  Audiencia.  In  both  campaigns  the  struggle  was  so 
unequal  that  notwithstanding  the  heroism  and  determination  of  the  colonists  they  were 
finally  overcome.  News  of  the  defeat  of  the  patriots  at  Guaqui,  on  the  border  of  Lake 
Titicaca,  reached  Tacna  when  the  army  organized  by  the  Limeilo,  Don  Francisco  Antonio 
Zela,  was  about  to  set  out  for  Alto  Peru;  and,  a  detachment  of  royalist  troops  arriving  soon 
afterward,  Zela  was  captured  by  them  and  delivered  to  the  authorities,  who  condemned  him 
to  exile  in  181 1.  The  following  year,  on  the  13th  of  February,  the  Independence  was 
proclaimed  in  Huanuco,  but  the  ardent  patriots  who  led  the  movement,  Castilla,  Araos,  and 
Rodriguez,  were  supported  only  by  raw  recruits  from  the  sierra  and  their  campaign  met 
with  disaster,  the  chiefs  being  put  to  death. 

Cuzco  made  its  proclamation  of  independence  in  18 14.  The  leader  of  the  patriots  was 
one  of  the  Caciques  who  had  joined  the  Bishop  of  Cuzco  in  repelling  the  forces  of  Tupac 
Amaru  thirty  years  earlier.  He  was  known  as  Mateo  Garcia  Pumacagua,  a  brave  warrior 
and  an  honest  patriot.  V/ith  him  were  Mariano,  Vicente  and  Jose  Angulo,  Gabriel  Bejar, 
Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  Padre  Munecas,  Luis  Astete,  Pinelo,  and  others.  Their  armies  were 
despatched  in  three  divisions,  one  of  which,  under  command  of  Pinelo  and  Munecas, 
marched  to  La  Paz,  besieged  it  and  took  possession. 

After  the  victory  of  Guaqui,  General  Goyeneche  had  retired  to  Europe,  to  enjoy  the 
honors  conferred  on  him  as  Count  de  Guaqui  and  a  grandee  of  Spain.  General  Pezuela  and 
General  Ramirez  were  sent  to  succeed  him,  with  troops  to  prevent  the  Argentine  forces  from 
advancing  into  Alto  Peru ;  and  General  Ramirez,  who  was  in  Oruro  when  the  patriots  entered 
La  Paz,  led  twelve  hundred  men  against  them,  forcing  them  to  retire.  He  then  passed  on  to 
Puno  and  advanced  on  Arequipa  in  time  to  reinforce  the  royalist  troops  which  had  been 
defeated  and  scattered  by  another  division  of  the  Cuzco  army,  under  command  of  the 
Cacique  Pumacagua  and  Vicente  Angulo,  at  that  moment  occupying  Arequipa,  amid  the 
rejoicings  of  the  patriotic  citizens.  The  trained  hosts  of  Ramirez  were  more  than  a  match 
for  the  Cuzco  troops,  who  were  forced  to  retreat,  while  the  victors  entered  the  city  in 
triumph.     Pumacagua  and  Vicente  Angulo  made  a  desperate  effort  to  recover  their  position, 


THE  OyERTHROI4^  OF  SPANISH  AUTHORITY 


»JJ 


but  when,  after  months  of  marching  and  counter-marching,  the  armies  met  at  Umachiri,  the 
patriots  with  badly  organized  troops,  many  of  them  undrilled  Indians,  while  Ramirez  had  a 
force  of  thirteen  hundred,  well  armed  and  disciplined,  the  result  of  the  battle  was  a  total 
overthrow  of  the 
Cuzco  troops,  who 
were  pursued  and 
again  defeated  in  an 
encounter  at  Azan- 
garo,  the  captives 
being  scourged  and 
then  set  free — after 
having  their  ears 
cut  off  as  a  menace 
to  their  sympathiz- 
ers. The  royalist 
troops  found  many 
of  these  mutilated 
lieroes  among  the 
insurgents  whom 
they  overcame  in 
a  final  engagement 
at  Asillo  soon 
afterward. 

The  third  divi- 
sion of  the  Cuzco 
army,  commanded 
by  Mariano  Angulo, 
Mendoza,  and  Be- 
jar,  marched  on 
Huamanga,  their 
progress  as  far  as 
Andahuaylas  being 
greeted  by  the  peo- 
ple along  the  route 
with  demonstra- 
tions of  great  joy,  and  the  prospect  appearing  favorable  for  the  capture  of  Jauja  and  Tarma. 
In  Huancavelica  they  were  also  well  received,  by  this  time  occupying  all  central  Peru  and 
cutting  off  the  capital  from  communication  with  the  royalist  forces  of  Pezuela  and  Ramirez. 
The  viceroy  sent  Colonel  Vicente  Gonzalez  to  meet  them,  and  a  battle  took  place  at  Huanta, 
the  royalists  gaining  the  day  after  seven  hours'  fighting,  during  which  the  streets  and  suburbs 


THE  SENATE   CHAMBER.   LIMA. 


134  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

of  Huanta  were  filled  with  the  dead  and  wounded.  Bejar,  Anguio,  and  Mendoza  returned 
to  Andahuaylas  for  reinforcements, — which  were  supplied  by  the  patriots  of  Abancay  and 
otiier  towns, — and  then  prepared  to  march  on  Huamanga.  Meantime,  word  was  received  of 
the  victories  of  General  Ramirez  over  the  two  other  divisions  of  the  Cuzco  army  and 
of  the  advance  of  his  men  on  Abancay.  Through  treachery,  Mariano  Anguio  and  Bejar  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  enemy  and  Mendoza  was  killed.  The  triumph  of  the  royalists,  who 
thus  succeeded  in  putting  down  a  revolution  that  had  extended  from  one  end  of  Peru  to  the 
other,  threatening  the  very  gates  of  the  capital,  was  celebrated  by  condemning  to  death  all 
the  leaders,  Pumacagua  being  hanged  and  his  companions  shot.  In  this  courageous  cam- 
paign, initiated  by  patriots  representing  every  social  class — an  hidian,  mestizos,  and  a  criollo 
priest — the  noble  mission  had  levelled  all  ranks;  the  spirit  of  democracy  had  triumphed 
over  caste ;  the  proudest  families  of  Peru  mourned  the  loss  of  their  sons,  sacrificed  for  the 
cause  of  their  country.  A  brilliant  young  poet  of  Arequipa,  Mariano  Melgar,  was  shot  on 
the  battlefield,  and  more  than  a  hundred  captives  were  cruelly  murdered  in  Puno,  among 
them,  Miguel  Paschal  San  Roman,  the  father  of  a  future  president  of  Peru. 

While  the  troops  of  the  viceroy  were  occupied  in  all  parts  of  the  colonial  dominion,  the 
patriots  of  the  capital,  led  by  Francisco  de  Paula  Quiroz,  a  graduate  of  the  University  of 
Huamanga,  took  advantage  of  the  momentary  weakness  of  the  garrison  in  Lima  to  prepare 
an  attack,  which,  however,  was  frustrated  by  the  arrival  at  Caliao  of  the  peninsular 
regiment  of  Talavera.  The  plot  was  discovered,  and  Count  de  la  Vega,  who  commanded 
the  garrison,  was  arrested  on  suspicion  of  complicity  with  the  patriots,  and  imprisoned. 
Quiroz  died  in  a  duel.  The  government  forces  were  victorious  in  all  parts  of  the  vice- 
royalty,  news  being  received  from  Chile  in  1814  that  the  patriots  had  been  overthrown  by 
the  army  of  General  Osorio,  sent  by  Abascal  to  the  relief  of  the  royalists.  But  that  which 
appeared  to  be  a  final  triumph  of  the  monarchy,  was  but  a  check  in  the  advance  of  the 
patriotic  cause,  during  which  its  leaders  were  able  to  reorganize  their  forces  and,  profiting  by 
the  experience  they  had  gained,  to  make  a  better  fight  than  ever,  snatching  victory  from 
defeat  in  one  of  the  most  glorious  campaigns  that  illustrate  the  annals  of  modern  history. 

When  the  Viceroy  Abascal  retired  to  Spain,  leaving  the  government  to  his  successor, 
Don  Jose  Joaquin  de  la  Pezuela,  in  18 16,  Buenos  Aires  was  the  only  stronghold  of  the 
patriot  party.  General  La  Serna  was  given  command  of  the  army  in  Alto  Peru,  and 
General  Ramirez  was  made  president  of  Quito.  General  Pezuela  was  the  last  of  the 
viceroys.  Though  he  arrived  at  a  mornent  when  nearly  all  Spanish  America  acknowledged 
the  authority  of  the  Crown,  which  had  been  restored  to  King  Ferdinand  Vll.,  yet  the  astute 
warrior  was  in  nowise  deceived  as  to  the  actual  condition  of  affairs  and  the  strength  of  the 
revolution  which  seemed  to  have  been  dominated  by  the  king's  armies,  it  was  true  that 
the  Argentine  patriots  had  retired  from  Alto  Peru,  leaving  that  country  to  fight  its  own 
battles  under  the  guerrilleros ;  Chile's  patriotic  army  had  withdrawn  across  the  Andes; 
Quito  had  been  subjugated;  New  Granada  had  succumbed  to  the  superior  strength  of  the 
royalist  armies;  the  cause  of  independence  had  been  apparently  suffocated  in  Venezuela, 


THE  OFERTHROIV  OF  SPANISH  AUTHORITY 


»K 


its  remaining  defenders  having  taken  refuge  in  flight ;  but,  though  all  these  facts  apparently 
signified  absolute  victory  for  the  government,  they  really  indicated  only  the  ominous  calm 
preceding  the  tempest,  and  it  was  not  long  before  the  darkness  of  gathering  clouds  enveloped 
the  monarchy,  bringing  confusion  to  its  ranks,  that  were  to  be  utterly  overwhelmed  by  the 
full  force  of  the  storm  as  it  broke  over  them  on  the  field  of  Ayacucho  a  few  years  later. 

When  the  Viceroy  Pezuela  took  command  of  the  government,  he  found  an  empty 
treasury  and  general  disorder  in  the  various  departments  of  colonial  affairs.  The  king 
was  disposed  to  establish  rigorous  absolutism  in  the  monarchy,  and  ordered  the  severest 
punishment  for 
the  patriots  who 
had  given  evi- 
dence of  liberal 
intentions;  their 
refusal  to  swear 
loyalty  to  the 
usurping  Bona- 
partes  was  not 
regarded  as  enti- 
tling them  to  any 
consideration, un- 
less they  imme- 
diately declared 
their  allegiance  to 
the  Crown,  un- 
reservedly. He 
counted  on  the 
support  of  the 
Holy  Alliance,  and 
felt  sure  that  the 

encyclical  sent  out  by  Pope  Pius  Vll.  on  January  30,  1816,  to  the  archbishops,  bishops,  and 
clergy  of  America,  obliging  them  to  promote,  by  all  means,  the  obedience  and  fidelity  of  the 
colonists  to  His  Catholic  Majesty,  would  have  a  speedy  effect ;  the  news  of  the  victories 
won  by  his  armies  against  the  patriots  was  especially  favorable  to  the  triumph  of  absolute 
authority.  But,  without  funds  in  the  exchequer  and  with  insufficient  means  of  defence  at 
his  command,  the  Viceroy  Pezuela  found  himself  confronted  by  a  sudden  resurrection  of 
the  enemy,  stronger  and  more  determined  than  ever,  better  organized  and  disciplined,  and 
advancing  in  two  powerful  hosts,  the  one  from  the  north,  the  other  from  the  south,  under 
the  command  of  experienced  and  accomplished  generals,  whose  fame  rang  throughout  all 
Spanish  America.  The  glory  of  the  viceroyalty,  which  had  dazzled  Peru  for  three  centuries, 
dwindled  before  the  splendor  of  their  deeds  of  valor  and  patriotism. 


CHAMBER    OF   DEPUTIES,    LIMA. 


1^6  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

From  the  South  came  the  great  Ejercito  Libertador,  or  Liberating  Army,  which  had 
been  organized  by  General  San  Martin  in  Mendoza  and  had  effected  the  complete  overthrow 
of  the  royalist  forces  in  Chile  in  1817.  The  invading  troops  were  composed  of  two 
thousand  five  hundred  men  and  twelve  guns,  protected  by  the  naval  forces  of  the  newly 
inaugurated  republic  of  Chile,  under  Admiral  Cochrane.  Landing  near  the  port  of  Pisco,  in 
what  is  now  called  Independence  Bay,  on  the  7th  of  September,  1820,  General  San  Martin 
issued  a  proclamation  the  following  day,  in  which  he  declared  that  the  purpose  of  his  army 
was  not  to  make  conquests,  hut  to  liberate  a  people  who  had  trembled  for  three  centuries 
under  the  barbarous  rights  of  conquest.  His  orders  to  the  soldiers  were  an  evidence  of 
good  faith  and  a  proof  of  his  soldierly  principles:  all  robbery  was  prohibited;  all  bloodshed, 
except  on  the  battlefield,  was  to  be  punished  by  hard  labor;  any  insult  offered  to  the 
citizens  of  the  country,  whether  Europeans  or  Americans,  was  a  grave  offence  and  might 
be  paid  for  at  the  cost  of  life  itself,  according  to  the  circumstances.  In  concluding  his 
proclamation  the  Liberator  paid  a  high  tribute  to  the  courage  and  humanity  of  his  troops, 
stimulating  their  enthusiasm  by  an  attractive  picture  of  the  glories  awaiting  them  as  the 
heroic  saviors  of  their  oppressed  fellowmen.  This  interesting  document  bore  the  date  of 
issue,  September  8th,  1820,  with  the  significant  words  "First  day  of  the  liberty  of  Peru," 
and  the  signature  "San  Martin." 

The  viceroy  hastened  to  make  proposals  of  peace  to  General  San  Martin,  inviting  him 
to  a  conference  for  the  purpose  of  agreeing  on  a  basis  of  mutual  understanding.  The 
invitation  was  accepted,  as  San  Martin  saw  in  it  his  opportunity  to  gain  time,  to  get  into  com- 
munication with  the  patriots  of  Lima,  to  learn  the  state  of  public  opinion,  the  situation  and 
strength  of  the  viceroy's  army,  and  other  important  matters.  The  patriots  of  Lima  had  not 
been  idle,  though  the  vigilance  of  the  colonial  authorities  prevented  tliem  from  securing 
possession  of  the  enemy's  stronghold ;  three  daring  leaders,  among  them  Colonel  Gomez, 
planned  an  attack  on  the  fortress  of  Callao  but  th^y  were  captured  and  punished. 
Riva-AgUero,  Francisco  Javier  Mariategui,  Pezet  and  Don  Eduardo  Carrasco,  maintained 
correspondence  with  the  emissaries  of  San  Martin  and  gave  valuable  information.  The 
conference  between  the  envoys  of  Pezuela — who  were  Count  de  Villar  and  Don  Hipolito 
Unanue — and  San  Martin's  representatives.  Colonel  Tomas  Guido  and  Don  Juan  Garcia  del 
Rio,  took  place  at  Miraflores,  a  suburb  of  Lima,  and  resulted  in  a  short  armistice,  but  in  no 
agreement  of  peace;  the  yiceroy  proposed  the  submission  of  the  patriots  to  a  liberal 
government  under  the  monarchy,  while  the  patriots  demanded  the  recognition  of  their 
independence. 

Before  leaving  Pisco,  San  Martin  sent  General  Arenales  at  the  head  of  a  thousand 
men  in  the  direction  of  Huamanga ;  they  were  received  at  lea  and  Huamanga  with  enthu- 
siastic support,  and  continued  their  march  to  Huancavelica,  Huancayo,  and  Tarma.  The 
viceroy  sent  troops  to  stop  Arenales's  progress,  and  the  opposing  forces  met  near  Cerro  de 
Pasco,  the  patriots  gaining  the  battle,  in  which  the  royalist  general  O'Reilly  and  Colonel 
Santa  Cruz  were  captured,  as  well  as  four  hundred  soldiers,  who  were  added  to  the 


THE  OI/ERTHROH/  OF  SPANISH  AUTHORITY  1J7 

patriots'  ranks.  General  O'Reilly  received  permission  from  San  Martin  to  return  to  Spain, 
but  committed  suicide  by  jumping  into  the  sea,  rather  than  live  under  the  shame  of  defeat; 
Colonel  Andres  Santa  Cruz  accepted  service  in  the  patriot  army,  and  was  afterward  president 
of  the  Peruvian-Bolivian  Confederation.  Arenales's  campaign  was  notable  for  its  influence 
in  winning  recruits  to,  the  cause  of  independence  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  sierra,  who 
were  greatly  impressed  by  the  conduct  of  the  troops,  especially  their  respect  for  property 
and  human  life,  which  had  been  ruthlessly  sacrificed  by  the  royalist  armies. 

The  first  point  of  disembarkation  made  by  General  San  Miirtin  after  leaving  Pisco  was 
Ancon,  to  the  north  of  Lima,  where  he  received  word  that  Guayaquil  had  declared  its  adhe- 
sion to  the  Ejercito  Libertador.  In  the  meantime,  many  Peruvian  patriots  had  joined  San 
Martin's  army.  A  young  soldier  named  Vidal  became  conspicuous  for  his  zeal  and  energy 
and  was  promoted  to  a  captaincy  for  valuable  services  at  this  time.  Admiral  Cochrane  was 
busily  preparing  to  seize  the  Spanish  frigate  Esmeralda  in  the  port  of  Callao,  and  on  the 
6th  of  November,  at  midnight,  he  perfected  his  plans,  organizing  the  squadron  into  two 
divisions,  each  of  which  advanced  on  the  frigate  from  opposite  directions;  the  Spaniards 
made  a  heroic  resistance  but  to  no  avail,  as  the  prize  was  captured  and  carried  off  to  Ancon. 
This  was  one  of  the  most  daring  and  brilliant  episodes  of  the  campaign.  Soon  afterward. 
General  San  Martin  removed  his  army  from  Ancon  to  Huaura,  near  the  port  of  Huacho,  about 
one  hundred  miles  north  of  Ancon.  Everywhere  he  was  welcomed  by  the  patriots,  whose 
number  increased  daily.  The  adhesion  of  Trujillo  was  secured  through  the  Intendente,  the 
Marquis  de  Torre-Tagle,  his  pronunciamU'nto,  which  was  issued  on  the  29th  of  December, 
1820,  gaining  for  the  patriot  cause  all  the  provinces  of  his  jurisdiction,  which  included 
Lambayeque,  Cajamarca,  and  Piura.  Meantime,  Arenales  was  making  uninterrupted  progress 
through  the  interior,  the  patriotic  Huanuco  having  issued  its  pronunciamiento  in  favor  of  the 
cause  immediately  after  the  victory  of  Cerro  de  Pasco.  In  Lima,  the  viceroy  was  losing  all 
control  of  affairs;  the  royalist  battalion  "Numancia,"  six  hundred  strong,  joined  the  Libera- 
tor's army ;  the  very  secretaries  of  Pezuela  were  cooperating  with  the  patriots ;  and  public 
.  opinion  was  divided  only  between  admiration  for  the  Liberator  and  contempt  for  the  policy 
of  the  viceroy,  who,  at  least,  controlled  a  larger  military  force  than  San  Martin,  and  was 
better  protected. 

in  January,  182 1,  the  leading  generals  of  the  royalist  army,  distrusting  the  purposes  of 
the  viceroy  and  dissatisfied  with  existing  conditions,  demanded  his  abdication,  and  raised 
General  La  Serna  to  the  supreme  command.  General  Pezuela  retired  to  Europe  with  his 
family.  After  his  abdication  more  than  a  hundred  royalist  officers  and  soldiers  joined  San 
Martin's  army,  among  others,  Colonel  Gamarta,  who  became  president  of  Peru  later;  and 
Colonel  Elespuru,  who  organized  the  first  exclusively  Peruvian  battalion  in  the  Liberator's 
army.  General  La  Serna,  no  more  courageous  than  Pezuela,  did  not  believe  that  he  could 
offer  sufficient  resistance  to  the  advance  of  the  patriot  army  on  Lima,  and  retired  to  the 
interior.  General  San  Martin  entering  the  capital  on  the  12th  of  July,  1821.  On  the  28th  of 
July,  the  date  celebrated  throughout  the  republic  of  Peru  as  "Independence  Day,"  the 


•,38  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEPV  PERU 

proclamation  of  independence  took  place  in  the  Plaza  Mayor,  in  front  of  the  government 
palace;  after  the  memorable  words:  "From  this  moment  Peru  is  free  and  independent  by 
the  will  of  the  people  and  by  the  justice  of  their  cause  which  God  defends ! "  the  standard 
was  unfolded  and  the  shouts  of  a  joyous  people  voiced  the  sentiment  of  an  emancipated 
country  in  Viva  la  Patria !  Viva  la  Libertad !  Viva  la  Independcncia ! 

The  Protector,  as  San  Martin  was  called,  began  at  once  the  organization  of  a  provisional 
government.  He  appointed  his  cabinet,  naming  as  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Don  Juan 
Garcia  del  Rio;  Minister  of  War  and  Marine,  Don  Bernardo  Monteagudo;  and  Minister  of 
Finance,  Don  Hipolito  Unanue.  The  patriot  Riva-Aguero  was  appointed  President  of  the 
Department  of  Lima.  Among  the  first  political  acts  of  the  Protector  was  the  abolition  of 
slavery  and  of  the  mita.  He  also  proclaimed  liberty  of  the  press  and  reform  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice  and  finance.  At  this  time  Lord  Cochrane  insisted  that  his  soldiers  were 
impatient  to  be  paid;  and,  in  order  to  meet  their  demands,  he  went  to  Ancon  where  he 
seized  a  cargo  of  silver  ready  for  shipment,  amounting,  it  is  said,  to  four  hundred  thousand 
dollars.  His  action  was  disapproved  by  San  Martin,  and  he  retired  from  Peru.  Meantime, 
the  royalists  were  defeated  in  an  attempt,  made  under  General  Canterac,  to  get  reinforce- 
ments to  the  garrison  in  the  fortress  of  Callao,  which  had  been  left  in  charge  of  General 
La  Mar  when  La  Serna  withdrew  from  the  capital.  The  garrison  was  forced  to  capitulate 
and  General  La  Mar  entered  the  army  of  the  Independence.  The  final  triumph  of  the 
patriots  depended  on  the  capture  of  the  royalist  army,  still  encamped  in  the  sierra,  and 
the  troops  of  the  Protector  were  growing  impatient  over  the  delay;  the  political  leaders 
were  occupied  with  the  preparations  for  the  forthcoming  national  Congress,  which  was 
to  meet  the  following  year  to  promulgate  the  Constitution  of  Peru ;  in  the  midst  of  these 
conditions.  General  San  Martin  gave  the  reins  of  government  into  the  hands  of  the  Marquis 
de  Torre-Tagle  as  Supreme  Delegate  and  went  to  Guayaquil,  in  order  to  meet  the  great 
leader  of  the  Ejercito  Colombiano,  General  Simon  Bolivar,  who  had  accomplished  for  the 
northern  provinces  of  South  America  that  which  he  himself  had  done  so  well  in  the  southern 
half  of  the  continent, — securing  their  independence  of  the  Spanish  monarchy. 

The  particulars  of  the  conference  between  General  San  Martin  and  General  Bolivar  in 
Guayaquil  are  not  known  to  this  day;  but  when  the  Protector  returned  to  Lima  he  resigned 
the  government  into  the  hands  of  the  first  constituent  congress,  which  met  in  Lima  in  1822. 
This  assembly  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Founder  of  the  Liberty  of  Peru ;  gave  him  the 
grade  of  captain  general ;  decreed  a  life  pension  for  him  equal  to  that  which  Washington 
received  from  the  United  States;  ordered  that  his  bust  should  be  placed  in  the  National 
Library  and  a  statue  erected  in  his  honor;  and  conceded  to  him  in  perpetuity  the  honors 
due  to  the  chief  of  government.  A  short  time  afterward  General  San  Martin  went  to 
Europe  where  he  died  in  18^0  at  seventy-two  years  of  age.  His  patriotism,  the  constant 
and  unfailing  devotion  with  which  he  worked  for  the  realization  of  the  noble  ideal  to  which 
his  life  was  consecrated,  his  honorable  principles,  magnanimous  conduct,  and  sterling 
character,  the  intrepidity  of  his  courage  as  a  soldier,  the  modesty  of  his  deportment  as  a 


THE  Ol^ERTHROlV  OF  SPANISH  AUTHORITY 


'39 


victorious  leader,  place  him  high  above  most  of  the  great  men  of  history  and  make  him 
worthy  of  immortality  among  the  best  of  them. 

The  first  independent  Congress  of  Peru  decreed  that  the  government  should  be 
exercised  by  Congress,  and  that  a  Junta  de  Gobierno,  composed  of  three  of  its  members, 
should  constitute  the  chief  executive  power.  General  La  Mar,  General  Alvarado,  and  the 
Count  de  Vista  Florida  were  named  for  the  first  Junta,  General  La  Mar  being  appointed  its 
president.  The  oath  of  allegiance  to  Congress  took  place  with  great  ecLH  in  September; 
the  following  year  the  Junta  de  Gobierno  was  dissolved  and  Don  Jose  de  la  Riva-Agijero 
was  elected  president  of  the  Republic,  taking  the  oath  of  office  and  receiving  the  baiida 


THE   HISTORICAL   PALACE  OF  THE   VICEROYS,  LIMA. 


bicolor,  a  band  of  ribbon  in  two  stripes,  "white  and  red,"  which  is  still  worn  by  the  chief 
executive  of  Peru  on  official  occasions.  Congress  also  bestowed  on  President  Riva-Agiiero 
the  rank  of  grand  marshal.  At  the  same  time,  the  command  of  the  army  was  given  to 
General  Santa  Cruz  and  General  Gamarra  was  appointed  chief  of  staff.  The  president  gave 
especial  attention  to  the  army,  and  within  a  few  months  after  his  inauguration  General 
Santa  Cruz  left  Callao  for  the  interior  at  the  head  of  five  thousand  troops,  in  two  divisions, 
one  of  which  was  under  his  own  command  and  the  other  in  charge  of  General  Gamarra. 
They  marc.hed  into  Alto  Peru  and  met  the  united  royalist  forces  under  La  Serna's  generals, 
Valdes  and  Okmeta,  but  were  obliged  to  retreat  before  the  superior  force  of  the  enemy; 
and  Santa  Cruz  lost  the  greater  part  of  his  army  while  making  his  way  to  the  coast  over 


I40  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

the  bleak  Cordillera,  during  a  dreadful  storm.  La  Serna,  who  had  his  headquarters  at 
Cuzco,  had  organized  his  forces  in  two  divisions:  the  army  of  the  North,  commanded  by 
General  Canterac  and  stationed  in  the  valley  of  Jauja,  as  a  menace  to  Lima;  and  the  army 
of  the  South,  under  General  Valdes,  supporting  the  royalist  cause  between  Arequipa  and 
Potosi.  This  was  the  condition  of  affairs  when  General  Santa  Cruz  left  Callao.  Soon 
afterward  General  Sucre,  who  has  been  called  the  diplomatic  agent  of  General  Bolivar, 
arrived  in  Callao  with  a  force  of  three  thousand  Colombian  troops.  At  the  same  time. 
General  Canterac  was  preparing  to  march  on  Lima  at  the  head  of  nine  thousand  men.  In 
view  of  the  circumstances,  President  Riva-Agliero  convoked  a  council  of  war,  which  resulted 
in  the  appointment  of  General  Sucre  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  patriot  army.  Canterac 
entered  Lima  in  June,  1823,  with  his  splendid  troops,  but  finding  that  Santa  Cruz  was  on 
his  way  to  the  interior  he  retired  to  Jauja.  With  the  advent  of  Canterac's  army  into 
Lima,  the  republicans  removed  their  headquarters  to  Callao,  and  later,  to  Trujillo.  The 
difficulties  incident  to  the  inauguration  of  a  new  form  of  government  occurred  in  the 
present  case;  a  quarrel  arose  between  Congress  and  executive,  the  president  resenting 
the  action  of  Congress  in  bestowing  supreme  authority  on  General  Sucre,  and  the  presi- 
dent's enemies  seeking  to  undermine  his  authority.  General  Sucre,  who  immediately  set 
out  with  his  army  to  overtake  Santa  Cruz,'  gave  the  command  of  the  capital  to  the 
Marquis  de  Torre-Tagle.  The  enemies  of  President  Riva-Agiiero  secured  his  downfall, 
and  after  being  treacherously  seized  and  imprisoned,  he  was  forced  to  retire  from  the 
country.  He  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  characters  of  the  revolution  and  his 
services  deserved  a  better  reward.  Posterity  is  proud  to  honor,  as  one  of  the  heroes 
of  his  country,  the  Grand  Marshal  Riva-Agiiero,  Marquis  de  Monte  Alegre'and  Chevalier  of 
the  Order  of  Charles  11 L 

General  Bolivar  arrived  in  Lima  on  the  ist  of  September,.  1823.  He  was  received 
with  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  and  was  immediately  invested  by  Congress  with  supreme 
authority,  military  and  political.  Later,  his  power  was  amplified.  General  Necochea  being 
at  the  same  time  made  political  and  military  chief  of  the  capital,  to  replace  the  Marquis  de 
Torre-Tagle  who  fell  into  disgrace,  through  his  correspondence  with  General  Canterac. 
As  soon  as  possible,  Bolivar  began  plans  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  great  purpose 
that  had  brought  him  to  Peru,  and  two  months  after  his  arrival  he  left  Lima  to  establish 
rnilitary  headquarters  at  Pativilca,  two  hundred  miles  north  of  the  capital  and  due  west 
of  Cerro  de  Pasco  near  which  the  royalist  troops  were  stationed,  in  the  department  of 
Junin.  Preparations  were  at  once  begun  for  a  campaign  against  the  enemy.  The  Liberating 
Army,  which  consisted  of  six  thousand  Colombian  and  four  thousand  Peruvian  troops, 
was  organized  in  three  divisions, — two  Colombian,  under  Generals  Cordova  and  Lara,  and 
one  Peruvian,  under  General  La  Mar,  the  Peruvian  cavalry  being  placed  in  charge  of  General 
Miller,  that  of  Colombia  under  Colonel  Carbajal's  orders,  and  the  Argentine  cavalry  under 
Colonel  Bruiz,  while  General  Necochea  commanded  the  united  cavalry  force.  General  Sucre, 
who  had  returned  from  the  interior,  being  appointed  chief  of  staff  of  the  whole  army. 


THE  OyERTHROlV  OF  SPANISH  AUTHORITY 


141 


The  presence  of  the  great  Bolivar,  whose  victorious  campaigns  in  Venezuela,  Colombia, 
and  Ecuador  had  sealed  the  independence  of  those  countries  on  the  battlefields  of  Boyaca, 
Carabobo,  Bombona,  and  Pichincha,  animated  the  now  drooping  spirits  of  the  Peruvian 
patriots,  and  filled  all  hearts  with  hope  and  confidence.  In  the  month  of  July,  1824,  the 
Liberating  Army  of  the  North  began  its  march  toward  Cerro  de  Pasco.  The  task  of 
leading  a  large  body  of  troops  over  the  mountains  was  tremendous,  especially  as  the 
supply  of  provisions  had  to  be  kept  up  at  great  cost,  and  the  severity  of  the  climate  at 
such  an  altitude  was  a  serious  drawback.  Over  a  similar  pathway,  five  hundred  miles 
farther  north,  the  Conquerors  had  led  their  men  three  centuries  earlier,  on  their  way  to 
Cajamarca.     But  on  what  a  different  mission  1    They  sought  the  subjugation  of  a  noble 


THE   MUNICIPAL   PALACE,  LIMA. 


and  gentle  race,  whom  they  hoped  to  rob  and  enslave  "by  right  of  conquest";  these 
advancing  hosts  were  seeking  to  bring  freedom  and  happiness  to  a  suffering  people. 
The  victory  of  the  former  brought  only  an  ignominious  destiny  to  the  Conquerors;  the 
triumph  of  the  latter  is  emblazoned  in  the  high  places  of  immortal  glory.  Pizarro's  name 
is  a  synonym  for  cruelty  and  rapacity;  the  names  of  San  Martin  and  Bolivar  thrill  the 
soul,  and  stir  its  noblest  sentiments. 

The  final  events  in  the  history  of  South  American  independence  took  place  within  a 
year  after  the  beginning  of  Bolivar's  campaign  on  the  plateau  of  Junin.  The  story  of 
Junin  is  soon  told.  While  the  royalists  remained  inactive  at  Jauja,  more  than  a  hundred 
leagues  to  the  south.  Bolivar  reached  the  plateau,  on  the  ^th  of  August,  1824,  and  reviewed 


142  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

his  troops,  ten  thousand  strong,  cheering  them  with  those  inspiring  addresses  which  great 
military  captains  of  all  ages  have  found  so  effective.  As  soon  as  General  Canterac  learned 
of  the  approach  of  Bolivar,  he  advanced  with  his  army,  consisting  of  eight  thousand 
infantry,  thirteen  hundred  cavalry,  and  a  proportion  of  field  artillery,  as  far  as  the  lake  of 
Junin,  near  the  southern  shore  of  which  the  famous  engagement  took  place.  After  a 
march  of  fifteen  miles  through  a  mountainous  district,  Bolivar's  army  reached  an  elevated 
point,  from  which  they  obtained  a  sudden  view  of  the  royalist  army,  five  miles  away, 
marching  over  the  plains  of  Junin.  The  patriot  cavalry,  nine  hundred  strong,  having 
dashed  forward,  came  up  within  a  short  distance  of  the  royalists;  putting  himself  at  the 
head  of  his  cavalry,  Canterac  ordered  a  charge  which  might  have  won  the  day,  as  the 
patriots,  in  their  enthusiasm,  had  placed  themselves  in  an  unfavorable  position;  but 
the  Spaniards  were  too  sure  of  their  victory  and  pushed  in  hot  pursuit  of  the  retreating 
cavalry,  thereby  giving  an  opportunity  for  a  Peruvian  battalion  under  Colonel  Suarez,  which 
had  been  detained  in  the  marshes,  to  advance  on  the  rear  of  the  royalist  ranks  and  thus 
afford  the  retreating  forces  a  chance  to  rally;  the  result  was  a  total  and  complete  victory 
over  the  Spaniards  after  a  battle  that  lasted  less  than  an  hour,  during  which  not  a  shot 
was  fired,  the  lance  and  sabre  alone  being  used.  The  royalists  lost  nineteen  officers  and 
three  hundred  and  forty-five  soldiers  of  the  line,  besides  eighty  taken  prisoners.  The 
patriot  losses  were  three  officers  and  forty-two  soldiers  of  the  line  killed  and  one  hundred 
wounded. 

The  victory  of  Junin  gave  Bolivar  command  of  Tarma,  Jauja,  Huancayo,  Huanta,  and 
Huamanga.  General  Canterac  retired  to  Cuzco  where  he  was  joined  by  Valdes,  and  the 
viceroy  himself  then  took  command  of  the  united  armies,  with  Canterac  as  his  chief  of 
staff.  The  Liberator  placed  his  troops  in  charge  of  General  Sucre  with  instructions  to  go 
into  quarters  in  the  Apurimac  valley,  east  of  Ayacucho,  during  the  rainy  season.  But  the 
viceroy  immediately  began  operations  against  the  patriot  army,  hoping  to  get  a  position 
in  their  rear  and  cut  off  communication  with  Lima.  While  General  Sucre  fell  back  to 
Andahuaylas,  La  Serna  led  his  army  across  the  Apurimac  and  around  by  Pampachira  and 
Huamanga,  and  there  countermarched  along  the  Cuzco  highroad  to  meet  the  patriots.  His 
army  numbered  ten  thousand  men,  with  fourteen  pieces  of  artillery,  and  sixteen  hundred 
cavalry,  presenting  a  very  formidable  force.  When  General  Sucre  found  out  that  the 
viceroy  was  leading  his  army  toward  Huamanga,  he  left  Andahuaylas  and  marched 
westward,  crossing  the  Pampas  River  a  few  leagues  southeast  of  Ayacucho,  and  reaching 
the  village  of  Quinua,  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  plain,  on  the  6th  of  December.  The 
viceroy  advanced  and  took  his  position  on  the  heights  of  Condorcunca,  which  rose 
abruptly  along  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  plain ;  General  Sucre's  troops  were  encamped 
in  front  of  the  Spaniards,  about  a  mile  distant  and  having  Quinua  in  the  rear.  On  the 
morning  of  December  9,  1824,  the  armies  were  ready  for  battle.  The  patriot  forces  were 
formed  in  close  columns,  General  Cordova  commanding  the  right,  General  La  Mar  the  left, 
and  General  Miller  the  centre,  with  General  Gamarra  as  first  chief  of  staff.    The  troops 


THE  OyERTHROPV  OF  SPANISH  AUTHORITY  14J 

did  not  number  more  than  five  thousand,  but  every  soldief  was  fighting  for  a  cause  dearer 
than  life  itself,  and  every  heart  thrilled  with  patriotic  fervor  as  General  Sucre,  in  an  inspiring 
voice,  recalled  their  former  achievements  and  urged  them  to  fight  for  their  honor  and  the 
salvation  of  their  country,  exclaiming:  "On  the  efforts  of  to-day  depends  the  fate  of  South 
America!"  As  the  royalist  army  was  seen  descending  Condorcunca,  he  added,  pointing  to 
their  glittering  columns:  "Another  day  of  glory  is  about  to  crown  your  admirable  con- 
stancy." When  the  enemy  appeared  on  the  plain.  General  Sucre  ordered  the  Cordova 
division  and  two  regiments  of  cavalry  to  advance  to  the  charge. 

The  field  of  Ayacucho  presented  an  animated  scene  as  the  signal  to  attack  was  given 
by  the  gallant  Cordova,  who,  dismounting  and  placing  himself  in  front  of  his  division, 
waved  his  sword  above  his  head  with  the  enthusiastic  order  "  Forward,  with  the  step  of 
victors  I"  His  confident  bearing  had  an  immediate  effect  on  the  troops,  and  they  moved 
to  the  attack  in  splendid  order,  the  charge,  which  was  made  in  four  parallel  columns  with 
the  cavalry  in  the  intervals,  proving  fatal  to  the  enemy.  The  historical  fight  was  won  after 
a  little  more  than  an  hour's  struggle,  during  which  the  royalists  were  driven  back  with 
great  slaughter.  At  first,  the  viceroy's  troops  fought  with  skill  and  courage,  but  they 
were  gradually  driven  back  and  obliged  to  abandon  the  field.  The  viceroy  was  wounded 
and  taken  prisoner,  which  had  a  depressing  effect  on  his  followers.  General  Valdes 
made  an  unexpected  detour  and  attacked  the  left  fiank  of  the  patriot  army  with  such 
success  that  the  fortunes  of  the  day  hung  for  a  few  moments  in  the  balance;  La  Mar's 
forces  were  obliged  to  retreat,  and  a  part  of  Lara's  division  which  went  to  his  assistance 
was  also  driven  back;  but  at  this  critical  juncture  General  Miller,  commanding  the  Junin 
Hussars,  made  a  splendid  charge,  forcing  the  enemy  to  retreat  and  giving  the  patriots  time 
to  recover  their  position.  An  impetuous  charge  was  then  made  on  Valdes's  ranks,  which 
sent  cavalry  and  infantry  fiying  in  all  directions.  The  victory  was  won ;  General  Canterac 
and  General  Valdes,  as  well  as  thirteen  other  generals,  five  hundred  officers  and  three 
thousand  rank  and  file,  became  prisoners  of  war.  Before  sunset  General  Canterac  sued  for 
terms,  and  a  capitulation  was  agreed  upon  which  does  the  highest  credit  to  the  generous 
spirit  of  the  victors.  The  losses  to  the  royalists  were  fourteen  hundred  killed  and  seven 
hundred  wounded,  while  the  patriots  had  three  hundred  and  seventy  killed  and  six  hundred 
and  nine  wounded. 

Such  was  the  victorious  outcome  of  the  battle  of  Ayacucho,  which  has  been 
pronounced  the  most  brilliant  ever  fought  in  South  America,  on  account  of  the  splendid 
discipline  of  the  troops,  the  skill  and  daring  of  the  officers,  the  presence  of  the  ablest  chiefs 
and  highest  representatives  of  both  the  opposing  forces,  and  the  undaunted  bravery  of  the 
entire  army  on  both  sides.  It  is  said  that  the  viceroy's  mistake  lay  in  making  any  attack 
at  all,  but  that  he  was  impelled  to  it  by  the  eagerness  of  his  troops,  tired  of  their  long 
marches.  After  the  victory,  Huamanga  received  the  name  of  Ayacucho.  By  the  terms  of 
the  capitulation  the  Spanish  officers  were  given  their  passports,  and  many  of  them  set  out 
for  Spain  immediately.    The  victory  put  an  end  to  Spanish  dominion  in  South  America,  the 


144 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


Viceroy  La  Serna  recognizing,  by  his  signature  to  the  capitulation,  the  absolute  independ- 
ence of  Peru.  The  subsequent  history  of  the  Republic  is  a  record  of  the  progress  and 
development  of  a  nation  which  had  to  learn  the  lesson  of  self-government  after  having 
been  for  centuries  accustomed  to  give  unquestioning  allegiance  to  an  absolute  monarch, 
under  a  system  that  gave  all  honor  to  military  prestige  and  social  rank,  and  regarded  as 
unworthy  of  consideration  any  human  rights  that  were  based  on  liberty,  equality  or 
fraternity. 


ARMS   OF  PERU  AT  THE  TIME  OF  THE   INDEPENDENCE. 


CHAPTER  IX 


PgRU   UNDER   REPUBLICAN   GOVERNMENT 


T^HE  Independence  of  Peru  was  the  crowning  glory  of  the 
Spanish-American  revolution.  Here,  in  the  heart  and 
centre  of  colonial  monarchism,  where  the  very  existence  of 
society  seemed  to  be  threatened  in  the  event  of  a  change  of 
government,  and  the  vigilance  of  the  authorities  was  so  active 
that  a  single  word  in  favor  of  liberty,  spoken  in  an  unguarded 
moment,  was  sufficient  to  place  its  author  under  the  fatal  ban 
of  the  Holy  Office,  the  patriotic  spirit  had,  nevertheless,  grown 
and  developed,  awaiting  only  a  fair  chance  to  dominate  an 
overpowering  environment.  The  Viceroy  Pezuela  realized 
the  force  of  national  sentiment  when  he  hesitated  to  send  his 
troops  against  General  San  Martin  at  Huaura,  although  the 
royalist  army  then  at  his  command  numbered  eight  thousand 
men,  and  he  had  every  advantage  over  the  precarious  position 
of  the  patriots.  The  defection  of  the  "  Numancia"  regiment, 
following  on  the  capture  of  the  Esmcnildd  and  the  victory  of 
Cerro  de  Pasco,  seemed  to  overwhelm  the  Spanish  authorities 
with  a  sense  of  insecurity,  as  if  they  realized  that  these  reverses 
signified  a  more  powerful  force  at  work  to  destroy  the  govern- 
ment than  was  apparent  in  the  small  army  of  the  Liberator. 
The  figlit  in  Peru  was  won  in  the  secret  councils  of  the 
patriotic  party  before  the  opposing  forces  met  on  the  battle- 
field. When  the  standard  of  the  Liberating  Army  was  unfurled  on  the  plain  of  Ayacucho,  it 
mattered  little  that  the  royalist  strength  doubled  that  of  the  patriots,  and  that  the  viceroy 
himself  appeared  in  the  field,  his  silver  helmet  glistening  at  the  head  of  his  troops;  the 
spirit  of  the  warrior  prepared  for  glorious  victory  or  sublime  sacrifice  which  animated 
every  soldier  of  the  republican  army  was  not  apparent  in  the  royalist  ranks;  the  officers  in 

'45 


MONUMENT   DOS   DE   MAYO. 


146  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

command  of  the  king's  forces  were  discontented  because  they  were  obliged  to  obey  a 
foreign  leader.  General  Canterac  being  a  Frenchman  of  haughty  manners  and  exacting  disci- 
pline; the  Indians  were  all  patriots  at  heart  and  had  been  pressed  into  the  royal  service 
against  their  will ;  a  presentiment  of  defeat  had  spread  through  the  viceroy's  camp  the  night 
before  the  battle,  in  spite  of  the  royalists'  superior  numbers,  and  there  was  none  of  the 
exaltation  which  carried  their  opponents  into  the  combat  with  the  exuberant  confidence 
expressed  in  the  order:  " Forward,  with  the  step  of  victory!" 

The  glad  news  of  the  final  triumph  of  the  patriotic  cause  was  carried  rapidly  to  every 
part  of  the  country,  and  the  joy  of  the  people  found  expression  in  enthusiastic  demonstra- 
tions of  all  kinds,  in  every  city  and  town,  religious  services  were  held  to  render  thanks  to 
God  for  the  success  which  had  crowned  the  efforts  of  the  nation  to  establish  its  freedom. 
The  Liberator  Bolivar  was  proclaimed  by  Congress  president  of  the  new  republic  for  life, 
and  the  Colombian  troops  were  voted  a  magnificent  reward  for  their  services  in  behalf  of  the 
independence  of  Peru.  Henceforth  the  country  that  had  been  held  most  strictly  under  the 
bondage  of  Spanish  conditions  and  customs  was  to  be  governed  by  its  own  people,  in  har- 
mony with  the  principles  for  which  its  patriots  had  so  courageously  contended,  and  according 
to  laws  formulated  and  decreed  on  the  responsibility  of  its  own  constituted  authorities. 

in  the  days  of  the  vice/oyalty  the  colonial  offices  of  importance  had  been  filled  chiefly 
by  Spaniards,  the  natives  of  the  colony  thus  having  had  little  opportunity  to  learn  adminis- 
trative methods.  They  were  now  to  undertake  the  organization  of  a  system  of  government 
which  was  not  only  unfamiliar  to  them,  but  which,  considering  the  national  temperament 
and  traditions,  it  would  be  impossible  to  establish  without  overcoming  tremendous  obstacles. 

As  soon  as  the  victory  of  Ayacucho  was  assured.  General  Sucre  led  his  army  to  Cuzco, 
and  this  ancient  city  was  once  more  the  scene  of  celebrations  in  honor  of  a  great  conquest ; 
though,  while  the  former  had  meant  the  destruction- and  slavery  of  the  original  inhabitants, 
this  one  signified  their  emancipation  and  protection,  it  was  fitting  that  the  capital  of  the 
Inca  empire  which  had  been  subjugated  by  Spain  three  hundred  years  before,  should  be 
the  first  city  to  receive  the  patriots  who  had  won  its  independence,  and  that  the  cliildren 
of  the  new  Peru  should  link  their  destiny  with  the  descendants  of  its  oldest  civilization  on 
this  historic  ground,  both  of  them  proud  to  claim  the  title  of  Peruvians. 

After  a  short  stay  in  Cuzco,  General  Sucre  proceeded  to  Alto  Peru,  where  he  was  chosen 
to  preside  over  the  first  congress  of  the  new  republic,  named  Bolivia  in  honor  of  the  Lib- 
erator, who  was  also  invited  to  become  its  president  for  life.  In  acknowledgment  of  this 
distinction,  General  Bolivar  went  to  Chuquisaca,  afterward  called  Sucre  to  compliment  the 
hero  of  Ayacucho,  and  took  charge  of  the  government,  drawing  up  the  famous  constitution 
that  received  his  name,  and  which  he  afterward  tried,  unsuccessfully,  to  impose  on  Peru. 
He  abdicated  the  presidency  in  favor  of  General  Sucre  within  a  year  and  returned  to  Lima, 
where  a  council  of  government  had  ruled  during  his  absence.  The  Liberator  did  not  remain 
long  in  Peru,  however,  retiring  from  the  country  permanently  on  the  jd  of  September,  1827, 
to  go  to  Colombia.    General  Andres  Santa  Cruz  became  the  president  of  the  council  of 


T 


PERU  UNDER  REPUBLIC/! N  GOl/ERNMENT  147 

government  after  Bolivar's  abdication.  He  convoked  Congress  to  meet  for  the  election  of 
the  president  of  the  republic  and  to  frame  the  national  constitution.  The  question  of  estab- 
lishing a  satisfactory  government  code  occupied  the  attention  of  successive  administrations 
for  twenty-five  years,  during  which  eight  constitutions,  based  on  republican  ideas  of  govern- 
ment, were  promulgated,  the  last,  decreed  in  i860,  being  still  in  force. 

General  La  Mar  succeeded  Bolivar  in  the  presidency ;  but  as  his  native  province,  Quito, 
had  been  separated  from  Peru  by  the  Liberator,  and  included  in  the  new  republic  of  Colom- 
bia, his  election  was  declared  null  and  void  by  a  clause  of  the  constitution,  which  provided 
that  the  president  should  be  a  Peruvian  by  birth.  He  hoped,  however,  to  annex  his  native 
territory  to  Peru  and  thus  legalize  his  position ;  and  the  opportunity  to  make  the  attempt 
came  as  a  result  of  his  interference  in  the  affairs  of  Bolivia,  which  caused  the  abdication  of 
General  Sucre  and  the  election  of  General  Andres  Santa  Cruz  as  president  of  that  country. 
Bolivar  resented  the  proceeding  and  declared  war  on  Peru,  to  which  La  Mar  responded  by 
marching  into  Guayaquil  with  an  army  of  four  thousand  men  and  taking  possession  of  the 
city.  He  was  forced  to  retreat  before  the  Colombian  army  and  withdrew  to  Piura,  where 
he  received  news  of  his  deposition  from  the  presidency  and  of  the  election  of  General 
Gamarra,  a  native  of  Cuzco,  who  was  inaugurated  on  August  31,  1829. 

The  military  spirit  was  too  strong,  and  the  principles  of  representative  government  were 
too  little  understood  in  the  beginning  of  the  new  life  of  Peru  to  adrh'it  of  a  strict  conformity 
to  the  republican  constitution ;  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  descendants  of  a  race  of 
soldiers,  with  all  the  traditions  implanted  by  an  absolute  monarchy,  should  err  at  first  in  their 
interpretation  of  political  freedom.  It  was  to  be  expected  that  the  heroes  of  the  Independence 
would  be  chosen  to  fill  the  highest  places  of  honor  in  the  new  government,  although  the 
very  nature  and  disposition  of  a  successful  military  leader  often  disqualify  him  for  the  duties 
of  civil  administration.  The  earlier  presidents  were  all  men  who  had  fought  for  the  Inde- 
pendence, and  with  the  exception  of  La  Fuente  (vice-president  in  La  Mar's  cabinet  and 
president  in  the  interim),  Orbegoso,  and  Vidal,  they  had  been  identified  with  the  victory 
of  Ayacucho. 

In  the  frequent  changes  of  government  that  occurred  during  the  first  ten  years  of  the 
republic,  some  of  the  administrations  were  of  short  duration  and  of  little  historical  import- 
ance. President  Gamarra  was  despotic  and  arbitrary,  and  aroused  the  opposition  of  the 
rnore  liberal  members  of  Congress,  who,  led  by  the  deputy  from  Tacna,  Don  Francisco  de 
Paula  Gonzalez  Vigil,  openly  protested  on  the  floor  of  the  House  against  the  unconstitu- 
tional conduct  of  the  chief  executive.  It  was  the  beginning  of  a  persistent  struggle  to 
overcome  militarism  and  to  establish  the  government  of  Peru  on  a  basis  more  consistent 
with  the  ideals  of  a  modern  republic.  President  Gamarra  was  in  turn  succeeded,  in  1833, 
by  President  Orbegoso,  whose  administration  was  disturbed  by  continuous  revolts  in  con- 
sequence of  the  irregularity  of  his  election,  and  the  jealousy  of  rival  candidates.  On  the 
23d  of  January,  183^,  General  Salaverry,  commander  of  the  garrison  of  Callao,  who  had  been 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  for  his  services  in  support  of  President  Orbegoso 


148 


THE  OLD  AND  THE  NEIV  PERU 


during  previous  revolts,  suddenly  declared  himself  against  the  government,  which  he  said 
was  dishonored  by  illegal  arrests  and  acts  of  injustice.    He  was  a  high-minded,  tliough 

impetuous,  young  officer,  and  he 
won  many  followers,  being  able 
to  secure  command  of  the  govern- 
ment, which  he  directed  with  good 
purpose  and  ability;  his  authority 
was  recognized  for  several  months 
in  all  the  republic  except  Arequipa, 
where  Orbegoso  had  his  strong- 
hold. The  latter  sought  the  assist- 
ance of  President  Santa  Cruz  of 
Bolivia,  and  the  overthrow  of  Sala- 
verry  was  accomplished  after  a 
series  of  engagements  in  which 
the  Bolivian  army  was  repeatedly 
checked;  the  battle  of  Socabaya, 
which  took  place  on  February  7, 
1836,  brought  the  struggle  to  an 
end,  Salaverry  being  taken  prisoner 
and  condemned  to  be  shot.  This 
sentence  was  carried  into  effect  in 
the  central  plaza  of  Arequipa  ten 
days  later.  General  Santa  Cruz 
then  proclaimed  the  Peru-Bolivian 
Confederation,  which  was  divided 
into  three  states,  northern  and 
southern  Peru  and  Bolivia;  Orbe- 
goso was  made  president  of  north- 
ern Peru  and  General  Herrera  of  southern  Peru,  while  General  Santa  Cruz  became  supreme 
director  of  the  confederation  with  the  powers  of  a  dictator. 

The  Peru-Bolivian  Confederation,  inaugurated  on  the  ist  of  May,  1837,  was  not  only 
unpopular  in  Peru  and  Bolivia,  but  it  led  to  war  with  Chile.  The-Ciiilean  invasion  has 
been  called  the  Nemesis  of  Salaverry,  as  the  Chilean  ships  were  full  of  exiled  Peruvians, 
glad  to  have  this  opportunity  to  fight  against  Santa  Cruz,  the  author  of  Salaverry's  defeat 
and  death.  Orbegoso  deserted  Santa  Cruz  and  retired  to  Guayaquil.  The  Chilean 
forces  were  commanded  by  General  Bulnes,  who  defeated  the  army  of  Santa  Cruz  in  the 
battle  of  Yungay,  in  1839,  the  "Supreme  Protector"  making  his  escape  to  Guayaquil, 
whence  he  sailed  to  France.  The  confederation  was  dissolved  by  General  Santa  Cruz  prior 
to  his  leaving  the  country,  and  General  Gamarra  was  proclaimed  president  of  the  republic 


DON    MANUEL    PARDO,  THE    FIRST   CIVIL    PRESIDENT   OF    PERU. 


PERU  UNDER  REPUBLICAN  GOyERNMENT  149 

for  a  second  time.  His  ambition  led  him  to  invade  Bolivia,  where  he  was  defeated  and 
killed,  in  the  battle  of  Ingavi  in  1841.  During  his  absence  from  Peru,  Colonel  Manuel 
Ignacio  Vivanco  seized  the  reins  of  government,  declaring  Gamarra's  election  illegal.  He 
was  deposed  by  General  Castilla,  Gamarra's  commander-in-chief. 

On  the  death  of  President  Gamarra,  Don  Manuel  Menendez  assumed  supreme  power, 
but  his  election  was  disputed  by  La  Fuente  and  Vivanco,  who  supported  General  Vidal  for 
the  presidency,  while,  in  the  meantime.  General  Torrico  took  more  violent  measures  and 
deposed  Menendez,  declaring  himself  president.  The  greatest  confusion  followed,  Vidal 
taking  the  field  against  Torrico,  who  was  defeated.  General  Vidal,  however,  was  more 
desirous  of  restoring  order  and  peace  than  covetous  of  political  honors,  and  in  order  to 
avoid  further  dissension,  he  resigned  in  favor  of  President  Menendez;  though  a  few  days 
later  his  action  was  nullified  by  that  of  a  new  faction  that  declared  in  favor  of  General 
Vivanco,  who  assumed  the  government  on  the  8th  of  April,  1844.  The  unsettled  political 
condition  was  a  natural  consequence  of  President  Gamarra's  death  in  Bolivia,  and  it  con- 
tinued until  a  leader  appeared  who  possessed  the  resolution  and  strength  necessary  to 
establisii  order  and  authority. 

General  Ramon  Castilla,  who  was  elected  president  of  Peru  in  1845,  accomplished  a 
great  deal  in  promoting  tlie  welfare  of  his  country.  Possessing  extraordinary  administrative 
ability,  he  reorganized  the  various  branches  of  public  service,  suppressed  the  taxation  of  the 
Indians,  definitely  abolished  slavery,  advanced  education  and  undertook  the  construction  of 
public  works  of  great  importance.  During  this  administration,  the  first  railways  in  Peru 
were  built,  between  Lima  and  Callao  (in  1848),  also  between  Lima  and  Chorillos,  and  the 
first  telegraphic  service  was  established.  The  finances  of  the  government  were  regulated  by 
subjecting  the  national  expenditures  to  an  estimate  sanctioned  by  Congress.  Municipal 
improvements  were  encouraged  throughout  the  republic,  and  the  prefects  of  the  various 
departments  vied  with  one  another  in  the  construction  of  good  roads,  commodious  public 
buildings  and  other  progressive  enterprises.  Steam  navigation,  which  had  been  initiated 
between  Valparaiso  and  Callao  in  1840,  was  extended  to  Panama,  the  service  being 
increased.  The  navy  was  reorganized  and  five  new  war  vessels,  operated  by  steam,  were 
added  to  the  squadron.  The  wealth  of  the  republic  increased  in  consequence  of  a  great 
demand  for  the  guano  of  the  Chincha  Islands,  which  became  a  source  of  immense 
revenue,  and  the  government  was  thus  enabled  to  arrange  for  the  payment  of  the 
interest  on  the  national  debt: — a  loan  of  one  million  two  hundred  thousand  pounds 
sterling  had  been  made  in  London  in  1822,  and  another  of  six  hundred  thousand  pounds 
in  182^,  both  at  six  per  cent,  which  with  the  accumulated  interest  made  a  debt  of  neariy 
four  million  pounds.  Negotiations  were  concluded  by  which  the  interest  on  this  sum  could 
be  paid  regularly. 

After  six  years  of  peaceful  government  President  Castilla  was  succeeded  by  President 
Echenique,  whose  administration  lasted  from  185"  1  to  18^^,  when  he  was  deposed  and 
President  Castilla  was  reelected.     During  his  second  term,  this  indefatigable  statesman 


I  JO 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


continued  to  devote  his  efforts  to  the  improvement  of  the  public  service.  Especial  attention 
was  given  to  the  construction  and  discipline  of  the  prisons.  The  foundations  of  the  present 
penitentiary  of  Lima  were  laid  in  accordance  with  plans  prepared  and  submitted  by 
Dr.  Mariano  Paz  Soldan,  who  had  the  work  in  charge.  When,  in  1862,  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment were  passed  to  his  successor,  Grand  Marshal  Don  Miguel  San  Roman,  President 
Castilla  retired  from  office  with  everything  to  his  credit  that  a  patriot  who  has  rendered 
good  service  to  his  country  may  claim.  Three  years  later  he  became  president  of  the 
Senate,  at  seventy  years  of  age.     By  the  terms  of  the  constitution  of  i860,  the  presidential 


THE  MORRO  OF   ARICA. 


period,  which  formerly  lasted  for  six  years,  was  reduced  to  four,  the  president  not  being 
permitted  henceforth  to  succeed  himself  by  reelection  for  a  second  term.  President  San 
Roman,  son  of  the  martyred  patriot  of  Umachiri,  lived  only  a  few  months  after  his  election, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Vice-President  Pezet,  during  whose  administration  a  conflict  arose 
with  Spain,  with  dire  consequences  to  the  prestige  of  the  president.  The  Chincha  Islands 
were  seized  by  a  Spanish  fleet  on  the  pretext  of  guaranteeing  certain  unjust  claims,  and 
President  Pezet,  who  found  himself  unable  to  offer  resistance,  was  obliged  to  make  a 
settlement  with  Spain  which  was  so  unfair  to  Peru  that  it  called  forth  vigorous  protest  and 


PERU  UNDER  REPUBLICAN  GOI/ERNMENT  iji 

led  to  a  revolution.  The  second  vice-president,  General  Pedro  Diez  Canseco  and  Colonel 
Mariano  Ignacio  Prado  were  the  leaders  of  the  movement  against  President  Pezet,  who, 
rather  than  plunge  his  country  into  civil  war,  resigned  office,  Colonel  Prado  being  proclaimed 
dictator  in  November,  i86j. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  Dictator  Prado  was  to  form  an  alliance  with  Ecuador,  Bolivia, 
and  Chile  to  combat  the  aggressive  designs  of  Spain.  After  an  engagemant  between  the 
allies  and  the  Spaniards  at  Abtao,  in  the  Chiloe  archipelago,  the  latter  proceeded  to  Valpa- 
raiso, which  they  bombarded,  thence  going  on  to  Callao,  where  after  a  five  hours'  fight  they 
were  defeated  and  obliged  to  withdraw,  never  to  return.  Chile  expressed  the  greatest 
admiration  for  the  bravery  and  patriotism  shown  by  the  Peruvians,  the  Chilean  minister  in 
Lima  writing  to  his  government  in  praise  of  "the  noble  and  valiant  nation."  The  city  of 
Santiago  presented  President  Prado  with  a  sword,  in  token  of  appreciation.  Though  the 
administration  of  Dictator  Prado  was  liberal  and  his  authority  mild,  the  spirit  of  the  nation 
was  now  opposed  to  an  unconstitutional  government,  and  in  1868  he  abdicated  in  favor  of 
General  Canseco,  who  immediately  convoked  Congress  to  elect  a  new  president.  The 
choice  fell  on  Colonel  Jose  Balta.  His  administration  is  noted  for  the  extensive  improve- 
ments made  in  public  works  during  that  period,  from  1868  to  1872. 

The  influence  of  militarism,  which  had  been  so  powerful  during  the  first  days  of  the 
republic,  gradually  declined,  as  republican  principles  became  better  established  and  a  younger 
generation  grew  up  more  zealous, for  the  moral  and  material  development  of  the  country 
than  for  glorious  records  of  the  battlefield.  General  Pezet  was  the  last  of  the  heroes  of 
Ayacucho  who  occupied  the  presidency.  Colonel  Balta  was  only  eight  years  old  when  the 
victory  of  Ayacucho  was  won,  and  thus,  born  a  child  of  the  republic,  he  grew  to  manhood 
under  conditions  which  enabled  him  to  appreciate  the  needs  as  well  as  the  accomplishments 
of  the  nation.  He  saw  that,  in  order  to  realize  the  progress  for  which  the  people  were  so 
earnestly  struggling,  greater  facilities  of  communication  were  indispensable,  and  he  devoted 
his  attention  especially  to  the  construction  of  important  railways,  their  cost  being  defrayed 
with  the  product  of  the  national  loans  of  the  years  1869,  1870,  and  1872.  These  loans 
increased  the  foreign  debt  of  Peru  to  thirty-two  million  nine  hundred  and  fifty-four  thou- 
sand pounds  sterling,  and  the  sales  of  guano  were  pledged  as  security  for  its  payment. 
During  this  administration,  the  region  of  the  Amazon,  which  had  been  opened  up  to 
traffic  by  General  Castilla,  was  put  in  closer  communication  with  the  capital,  explorations 
being  made  on  the  tributaries — Pachitea,  Perene,  and  others.  The  city  of  Lima  was  beauti- 
fied, a  new  iron  bridge  was  built  across  the  Rimac  River,  and  a  great  industrial  fair  was 
inaugurated,  the  handsome  Exposition  Palace  being  built  for  the  purpose.  When  his 
presidential  term  expired,  in  1872,  Don  Manuel  Pardo,  who  had  founded  the  civil  party  in 
opposition  to  militarism,  was  elected  his  successor.  A  few  days  before  President  Balta 
was  to  retire  from  office,  his  Minister  of  War,  Colonel  Tomas  Gutierrez,  in  conspiracy  with 
officers  of  the  army,  effected  a  coup  d  'Etat,  overpowering  the  president,  who  was  carried  off 
and  imprisoned,  and,  later,  assassinated.     Gutierrez  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  by 


•  ?^ 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIT  PERU 


his  officers  Supreme  Ruler  of  Peru;  he  had  already  given  secret  orders  for  the  capture 
of  Don  Manuel  Pardo, — whom  he  was  determined  to  get  out  of  the  way  in  order  to 

establish  his  authority  more 
securely, — but  the  president- 
elect was  informed  of  the 
imminent  danger  which  threat- 
ened him  and  he  succeeded  in 
making  his  escape  on  board  a 
man-of-war  which  lay  in  the 
harbor.  But  the  coup  d'etat 
found  no  sympathy  with  any 
political  party,  and  had  no  sig- 
nificance beyond  the  ineffectual 
attempt  of  a  few  soldiers  of 
inflamed  ambition  and  little 
patriotism  to  impose  their  will 
on  a  law-abiding  people;  the 
citizens  of  Lima  and  Callao 
rose  en  masse  against  the 
treacherous  soldiers  and  over- 
threw them,  putting  to  death 
Tomas  Gutierrez  and  two  of 
his  three  brothers  implicated 
in  the  deed.  The  surviving 
brother  deeply  repented  his 
share  in  the  revolt,  and  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life  in  an 
honest  and  brave  attempt  to 
expiate  his  crime. 
President  Manuel  Pardo  was  inaugurated  on  the  2d  of  August,  1872.  Born  in  Lima 
in  1834,  of  a  family  distinguished  for  generations  as  statesmen  and  men  of  letters,  he 
had  early  imbibed  the  sentiments  of  patriotism.  His  education  began  in  the  college 
of  San  Carlos,  Lima,  and  was  completed  in  Barcelona  and  Paris,  where  he  developed 
an  especial  interest  in  the  study  of  political  science  and  finance.  When  still  in  his  early 
twenties  he  began  his  public  career  as  one  of  the  founders  of  La  Revista  de  Lima,  a 
periodical  of  importance;  and,  in  18^8,  he  received  the  appointment  of  Oficial  Mayor 
in  the  Ministry  of  Finance,  in  1864,  the  first  bank  in  Lima  was  founded  by  him,  and, 
during  the  administration  of  the  Dictator  Prado,  he  was  promoted  to  the  post  of  Minister 
of  Finance.  As  mayor  of  Lima  and  as  director  of  its  benevolent  societies,  his  official 
services  were  of  such  importance  that  the  citizens  presented  him  with  a  gold  medal 


DON  MANUEL  CANDAMO-ELECTED   PRESIDENT  OF   PERU  1903,  DIED  1904. 


PERU  UNDER  REPUBLICAN  GOI^ERNMENT  i^j 

in  token  of  their  gratitude.  This  occurred  during  a  period  when  the  capital  was  visited 
by  an  epidemic. 

Possessing  unusual  gifts  and  wide  experience,  President  Pardo  was  well  equipped  to 
fulfil  the  highest  duties  of  the  state.  He  devoted  himself  with  particular  energy  and  purpose 
to  the  intellectual  development  of  his  country,  and  introduced  radical  reforms  in  various 
branches  of  the  public  service.  In  no  period  of  the  republic  was  more  rapid  progress 
shown  in  the  culture  of  the  people  than  during  this  administration,  when  the  encourage- 
ment of  education  stimulated  a  love  of  knowledge  among  all  classes.  A  Faculty  of  Political 
and  Administrative  Science  was  created,  also  a  School  of  Engineers  and  a  School  of  Science 
and  Arts ;  the  military  and  naval  schools  were  reorganized,  and  the  School  for  Midshipmen 
of  the  Navy  as  well  as  the  School  for  Corporals  and  Sergeants  of  the  Army  was  established. 
The  present  system  of  modern  instruction  conforms  to  the  code  promulgated  by  President 
Pardo.  His  administrative  ability  was  seen  in  every  department  of  the  government.  He 
organized  the  national  guard  and  the  police  service;  established  departmental,  provincial, 
and  district  councils,  to  overcome  municipal  centralization ;  cooperated  with  the  judiciary  in 
maintaining  the  authority  of  their  decisions;  ensured  the  stability  of  the  financial  system 
and  reformed  the  mining  code. 

Unfortunately,  the  administration  of  President  Manuel  Pardo  succeeded  a  period  of 
material  expansion  so  costly  that  the  responsibilities  resulting  therefrom  were  of  extraordi- 
nary weight  and  difficulty,  and  could  be  met  only  by  heroic  sacrifices.  The  public  debt  called 
for  an  immense  sum  to  pay  the  interest,  and  caused  a  financial  and  economic  crisis,  whicii 
made  it  impossible  to  redeem  the  bank  notes,  and  necessitated  the  issuance  of  government 
notes.  In  order  to  improve  the  economic  situation.  President  Pardo,  realizing  that  Peru  con- 
tained the  world's  chief  nitrate  and  guano  deposits,  conceived  the  plan  of  establishing  a  nitrate 
monopoly.  He  hoped  by  controlling  the  nitrate  output  to  destroy  the  competition  which 
nitrate  had  waged  against  guano,  the  country's  principal  source  of  revenue,  and  the  chief 
means  of  paying  its  public  debt.  By  this  and  other  patriotic  measures,  a  reform  in  existing 
conditions  was  to  be  effected  which  would  relieve  the  financial  strain  and  restore  the  pros- 
perity of  the  country.  But  the  intensity  of  the  commercial  crisis  and  the  unsettled  state  of 
politics  that  always  accompanies  panic  conditions,  made  it  impossible  for  the  great  statesman 
to  realize  his  hopes,  and  his  administration  was  a  continued  struggle  through  one  of  the  most 
trying  financial  periods  of  the  republic.  President  Manuel  Pardo,  the  founder  of  the  Civil 
party,  was  the  first  executive  to  dominate  the  tendency  which  had  hitherto  prevailed  in 
Peruvian  politics  of  keeping  the  public  offices  in  the  hands  of  a  privileged  class.  He  was 
impartial  in  his  recognition  of  superior  worth  wherever  he  found  it. 

The  dictator,  Don  Mariano  Prado,  was  elected  constitutional  president  to  succeed 
President  Pardo  in  1876,  the  latter  being  called  to  the  Senate,  of  which  he  became  president 
the  following  year.  On  the  i6th  of  November,  1878,  while  passing  through  the  ante-room 
to  the  Senate  Chamber,  the  illustrious  statesman  met  his  death  at  the  hand  of  an  assassin. 
An  ignorant  sergeant  committed  the  deed  which  robbed  Peru  of  one  of  her  noblest  and 


"^f 


1^4 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


devoted  patriots,  and  plunged  the  whole  nation  into  grief.  By  what  strange  fatality  the 
defender  of  the  masses  and  their  most  sincere  protector  should  have  been  murdered  by 
one  of  their  number  is  no  more  to  be  explained  than  that  Lincoln,  Garfield,  and  McKinley 
should  have  been  similarly  sacrificed  while  laboring  in  behalf  of  the  sacred  principles  of 
human  liberty. 

In  the  year  1879  the  war  of  the  Pacific  was  inaugurated  by  Chile,  whose  government 
claimed  that  its  interests  were  threatened  in  consequence  of  a  treaty  of  alliance  made  six 
years  earlier  between  Peru  and  Bolivia,  which  Chile  denominated  a  secret  compact.  The 
treaty  was  known  to  the  Chilean  Minister  in  Bolivia  in  1874,  however,  and  was  officially 
announced  to  Argentina  in  1876.  According  to  some  authorities,  Chile  sought  a  pretext  for 
war,  hoping  to  gain  possession  of  the  nitrate  beds  of  Tarapaca.  In  any  case,  its  government 
was  well  prepared  for  war,  having  just  reorganized  its  navy  and  purchased  the  new  iron- 
clads Almirante  Cochrane  and  Blanco  Encalada,  which  were  superior  to  the  Peruvian 
ironclads  Huascar  and  Independencia,  purchased  ten  years  earlier.  The  first  attack  was 
made  on  Bolivia,  but  that  country  was  in  no  condition  to  resist  a  powerful  enemy,  and  the 
war  soon  became  a  trial  of  strength  between  Chile  and  Peru.  The  first  naval  engagement 
occurred  off  the  coast  of  Iquique,  Rear-Admiral  Miguel  Grau  commanding  the  Huascar,  and 
Captain  Moore  the  Independencia,  against  the  Chilean  corvette  Esmeralda,  commanded  by 
Captain  Arthur  Prat,  and  the  gunboat  Covadonga,  commanded  by  Captain  Condell.  The 
Esmeralda  was  sunk  by  the  guns  of  the  Huascar  and  Captain  Prat  lost  his  life  in  the 
engagement,  though  fighting  with  great  heroism.  A  letter  from  Admiral  (then  Captain)  Grau 
of  the  Huascar  to  the  widow  of  the  Chilean  hero,  reveals  the  noble  character  and  gentle 
heart  of  the  victorious  commander,  who  was  soon  to  meet  his  own  death  fighting  against 
greater  odds.  "Captain  Prat  died,"  he  wrote,  "a  victim  to  his  excessive  intrepidity  in  the 
defence  and  for  the  glory  of  the  flag  of  his  country.  I  sincerely  deplore  this  mournful 
event,  and  in  expressing  my  sympathy,  I  take  the  opportunity  of  forwarding  the  precious 
relics  that  he  carried  on  his  person  when  he  fell,  believing  that  they  may  afford  some 
slight  consolation  in  the  midst  of  your  great  sorrow."  Such  thoughtful  tenderness 
inspires  the  greatest  admiration  for  this  brave  man.  Meantime  the  Independencia  in 
pursuit  of  the  Covadonga,  and  drawing  much  more  water  than  the  adversary,  suddenly  ran 
on  the  rocks  and  became  a  total  wreck,  this  fatal  accident  proving  a  deathblow  to  Peru,  as 
the  strength  of  the  Chilean  fleet  was  now  overwhelming.  The  brilliant  exploits  of  Admiral 
Grau  kept  the  enemy  at  bay  for  four  months,  during  which  he  protected  the  Peruvian 
coast  by  a  series  of  rapid  and  skilful  manoeuvres.  The  discontent  in  Chile  over  the 
inactivity  of  the  fleet  became  so  great  that  a  new  War  Minister  was  appointed,  whose  first 
act  was  to  order  the  two  ironclads  back  to  Valparaiso  to  be  overhauled,  as  they  were  no 
match  in  speed  for  the  Huascar.  The  Chilean  navy  was  practically  reorganized,  merchant 
ships  were  engaged  to  transport  troops,  and  a  few  were  purchased  to  be  used  as  men- 
of-war.  The  naval  fight  was  really  a  single-handed  encounter  between  the  Huascar 
and  the  two  Chilean    ironclads.    Admiral  Grau's   heroism  was  sublime.    The   English 


FERU  UNDER  REPUBLICAN  GOyERNMENT 


15? 


historian,  Clements  R.  Markham,  who  has  written  a  detailed  description  of  tliis  war,  says 
that  "the  Chilean  squadron  consisting  of  two  ironclads  and  several  other  vessels,  all 
carefully  and  thoroughly  re- 
fitted, was  despatched  from 
Valparaiso  for  the  purpose  of 
forcing  the  Hiiasiar  to  fight 
single-handed  against  hope- 
less odds."  Meantime  the 
gallant  Grau  was  cruising 
along  the  coast,  doing  his 
utmost  to  hinder  the  prepa- 
rations of  the  Chileans  for  a 
military  invasion  of  Peru. 
On  the  morning  of  the  8th  of 
October,  1879,  as  the  Huas- 
car,  followed  by  the  gunboat 
Union,  was  slowly  steaming 
northward  from  Antofagasta, 
the  three  Chilean  warships, 
the  Blanco  Encalada,  Cova- 
donga,  and  Matias  Coiis/tio 
appeared  in  sight  to  the  north- 
east near  Point  Angamos;  the 
Huascar  turned  to  the  north- 
west and  put  on  all  speed  to 
escape  the  enemy,  when  sud- 
denly the  Almirante  Coch- 
rane, O'Higgins,  and  Loa  came 
into  view,  heading  from  the 
very  direction  in  which  the 
Huascar  was  steering.  Un- 
dismayed by  the  critical  sit- 
uation, Admiral  Grau  ordered 

Captain  Garcia  y  Garcia,  the  commander  of  the  Union  to  put  on  full  speed  and  get  out  of 
danger,  as  in  case  of  the  loss  of  the  Huascar  the  Union  would  be  the  only  serviceable  vessel 
left  to  Peru.  In  the  fight  which  followed,  a  shell  from  the  Cochrane  struck  the  pilot  tower 
of  the  Huascar,  in  which  were  Admiral  Grau  and  one  of  his  lieutenants,  destroying  the 
tower  and  killing  its  occupants,  who  were  blown  to  pieces.  The  brave  hero  and  his  ship 
met  their  doom  by  the  same  blow,  as,  up  to  that  moment,  the  Huascar  had  held  its  own. 
A  few  minutes  later,  the  Blanco  Encalada  fired  on  the  doomed  Huascar,  its  shell  killing 


gim 

■ 

i 

1  :♦♦ Ar 

i 

.* 

4 

f 

i  1 

A  n 

f 

* 

'1 

J' 

A 

f 

GENERAL  ANDRES  CACERES,   PRESIDENT  OF   PERU,  1886-1890  AND  1894-1895. 


1^6  THE  OLD  ^ND   THE  NEI4^  PERU 

Captain  Elias  Aguirre,  who  had  taken  the  admiral's  place.  No  sooner  had  he  fallen  than 
his  successor,  Captain  Manuel  Carbajal,  met  the  same  fate,  to  be  followed  by  Lieutenant 
Rodriguez,  whose  place  was  immediately  taken  by  Lieutenant  Enrique  Palacios,  until  a  frag- 
ment of  shell  struck  him  down  and  the  command  devolved  on  Lieutenant  Garezon.  When 
the  terrible  combat  ended,  it  was  found  that  one-third  of  the  one  hundred  and  ninety-three 
officers  and  men  on  tlie  Huascar  had  been  killed  or  wounded. 

In  the  hecatomb  of  Angamos  perished  Peru's  last  hope  of  keeping  the  enemy  from  an 
attack  on  the  coast,  which  extended  fourteen  hundred  miles  in  length  and  presented 
peculiar  difficulties  of  defence,  because  of  the  desert  regions  that  occur  at  intervals.  The 
movement  of  troops  was  practically  impossible  in  case  of  a  blockade  of  the  ports,  and  the 
uncertainty  of  the  chosen  point  of  attack  made  it  necessary  to  prepare  for  defence  every- 
where. In  November  1879  the  invading  Chilean  army,  consisting  of  ten  thousand  men,  and 
supported  by  the  Chilean  fleet,  began  a  series  of  attacks  on  land  which,  with  the  exception 
of  the  battle  of  Tarapaca  and  a  few  minor  engagements,  resulted  in  victory  for  the  invading 
troops.  The  only  advantage  Peru  could  claim  lay  in  the  skill  of  her  generals  and  other 
commanding  officers  who  performed  miracles  in  manoeuvring  the  small  forces  at  their 
disposal.  General  Buendia,  commander-in-chief  of  the  Peruvian  army,  was  fortunate  in 
the  officers  who  surrounded  him.  His  chief  staff  officer,  Colonel  Suarez,  who  led  the 
troops  in  the  victory  of  Tarapaca,  and  Colonel  (now  General)  Andres  Caceres,  who  received 
the  felicitations  of  his  chief  on  the  field  of  battle  on  that  memorable  occasion,  showed 
themselves  worthy  descendants  of  a  race  of  warriors;  Colonel  Bolognesi,  Colonel  Zubiaga, 
Colonel  Pardo  de  Figueroa,  Colonel  Rios,  all  of  whom  lost  their  lives  in'the  service  of  their 
country,  were  soldiers  whose  military  genius,  no  less  than  their  heroism,  reflected  glory  on 
their  country.  The  name  of  Bolognesi  is  especially  revered  in  Peru,  in  memory  of  the 
heroic  fight  which  this  indomitable  hero  made  on  the  Morro  de  Arica,  June  ^,  1880.  The 
war  had  gone  against  the  allies,  the  command  of  the  sea  giving  the  Chileans  a  tremendous 
advantage ;  though,  in  spite  of  their  watchfulness,  the  Union  and  small  transports  succeeded 
in  running  the  blockades  and  getting  troops,  arms,  and  clothing  to  the  Peruvian  army  at 
various  points.  The  assault  and  capture  of  Arica  was  to  bring  the  struggle  close  to  its  final 
scene — the  last  formal  resistance  on  the  part  of  Peru  being  made  at  Huamachuco  under  the 
command  of  General  Caceres — and  this  thrilling  event  proved  a  fitting  climax  to  one  of 
the  saddest  dramas  in  the  history  of  republican  America.  Colonel  Francisco  Bolognesi  was 
given  command  of  the  defence  of  Arica.  With  him  were  Captain  Moore,  Alfonso  Ugarte, 
Colonel  Inclan,  Arias,  Varela,  and  the  Cornejo  brothers,  all  prepared  to  die  with  their  leader 
rather  than  surrender.  The  heavy  bombardment  from  the  Cochrane,  Magallanes,  Covadonga, 
and  Loa  was  answered  by  the  monitor  Manco  Ccapac  and  the  shore  batteries,  the  guns  on 
the  Morro  doing  effective  service;  but  the  odds  were  more  than  two  to  one  of  disciplined 
troops  against  volunteers  and  the  result  was  inevitable.  Bolognesi,  Moore,  and  Alfonso 
Ugarte  stood  together  at  the  guns  as  the  fort  was  taken,  and  met  the  death  of  heroes.  The 
story  of  Arica  and  of  the  events  which  followed  chills  one  with  horror  at  the  thought  that 


PERU  UNDER  REPUBLICAN  GOyERNMENT  157 

such  things  could  be;  and  the  nation  to  whom  victory  was  thus  brought  must  sincerely 
regret  that  it  was  won  at  such  dreadful  cost.  Peruvian  industries  and  commerce  were 
paralyzed,  as  if  the  whole  land  had  been  scourged  by  a  plague;  and  the  beautiful  City  of 
the  Kings,  with  its  population  of  one  hundred  thousand,  as  well  as  the  suburbs,  Chorillos 
and  IWiraflores,  presented  a  spectacle  of  general  desolation. 

The  War  of  the  Pacific  lasted  four  years  and  a  lialf,  and  closed  with  the  Treaty  of 
Ancon,  which  was  signed  in  Lima  on  the  23d  of  October,  1883,  by  General  Manuel  Iglesias, 
the  commander  of  the  Peruvian  army  in  the  north,  who  believed  there  was  no  other  way  to 
obtain  peace  than  by  submission.  In  accordance  with  this  treaty,  the  province  of  Tarapaca, 
with  its  valuable  nitrate  fields,  was  given  up  to  Chile  unconditionally  and  for  all  time;  and 
the  provinces  of  Tacna  and  Arica  were  ceded  for  a  period  of  ten  years,  subject,  at  the  expira- 
tion of  that  time,  to  a  plebiscite,  which  would  defmitely  establish  their  nationality;  it  being 
stipulated  that  the  country  in  whose  favor  it  should  result,  should  pay  to  the  other  the  sum 
of  ten  million  pesos.  This  plebiscite  has  not  yet  been  held.  After  the  signing  of  this  treaty. 
General  Iglesias  assumed  command  of  the  government,  tlie  Assembly  convoked  by  him 
ratifying  his  appointment  as  president  of  Peru  and  approving  the  Treaty  of  Ancon.  But  a 
great  part  of  the  nation  refused  to  recognize  his  authority  and  could  not  be  induced  to  lay 
down  their  arms;  General  Caceres,  who  with  General  Canevaro  and  others  had  sustained 
the  honor  of  their  country  through  four  years  of  incessant  struggle  against  heavy  odds, 
continued  the  bitter  fight  to  the  last. 

On  the  2d  of  December,  188^,  General  Caceres  occupied  Lima  and  was  installed  as 
constitutional  president  of  the  republic  on  August  10,  1886,  seven  years  after  the  declaration 
of  war  by  Chile.  He  was  the  unanimous  choice  of  the  nation  and  was  elected  amid  the 
acclamations  of  the  people,  without  regard  to  political  parties,  his  election  signifying  the  final 
restoration  of  peace.  President  Caceres  devoted  his  chief  attention  to  reorganizing  the 
various  departments  of  the  administration.  The  consolidation  of  the  public  debt  was 
effected,  the  foreign  debt  contracted  by  the  loans  of  1869,  1870,  and  1872  being  cancelled  by 
a  contract  with  the  corporation  which  represented  the  bondholders.  By  this  contract,  Peru 
ceded,  in  payment  of  its  debt,  the  usufruct,  for  sixty-six  years,  of  all  the  state  railways  and 
the  guano  in  Peru,  not,  however,  in  excess  of  three  million  tons,  and  furthermore  obligated 
itself  to  pay  eighty  thousand  pounds  a  year  for  thirty-three  years  in  consideration  of  the  con- 
struction of  one  hundred  and  sixty  kilometres  of  railway  in  addition  to  the  mileage  already  built. 

When  General  Caceres  retired  from  the  presidency  in  1890  he  was  succeeded  by  Colonel 
Remigio  Morales  Bermudez,  who  died  just  before  the  expiration  of  his  term  in  1894.  The 
second  vice-president.  General  Borgoiio,  assumed  the  presidency,  disregarding  the  right  of 
the  first  vice-president,  Dr.  Alejandrino  del  Solar.  The  disturbances  threatened  by  this 
irregular  proceeding  culminated  when  General  Caceres  assumed  command  of  the  govern- 
ment for  the  second  time,  though  his  attitude  brought  about  the  coalition  of  the  Civil  and 
Constitutional  parties,  formerly  antagonistic  but  henceforth  proving  a  powerful  combi- 
nation for  political  peace  and  progress.    General  Caceres  resigned  from  the  presidency  in 


.^8 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEtV  PERU 


SCENE  ON   BOARD  A   PERUVIAN   WARSHIP. 


March,  189^,  and  a  governmental  committee  took  charge  of  the  administration,  presided  over 
by  Don  Manuel  Candamo,  its  first  act  being  to  convoke  Congress  for  a  general  election. 

General  Don  Andres  Ave- 
lino  Caceres  stands  among 
the  foremost  leaders  of  Peru- 
vian politics,  combining,  with 
extraordinary  success,  the 
gifts  of  a  soldier  and  a  states- 
man, fearless  and  unyield- 
ing on  the  battlefield,  clear- 
headed and  resolute  in  the 
cabinet.  Born  in  Ayacucho 
on  the  nth  of  November, 
1838,  the  hero  of  many  com- 
bats has  passed  his  three 
score  and  ten  years  with  the 
same  disdain  of  fatigue  in 
his  march  with  Time  that  he 
used  to  display  when  outgeneralling  the  enemy  of  his  country.  When  only  sixteen  years  of 
age  he  solicited  and  received  the  appointment  of  sub-lieutenant  in  the  Ayacucho  battalion. 
He  fought  with  credit  under  General  Castilla,  who  afterward  sent  the  handsome  young  soldier 
to  Paris  as  military  attache  to  the  Peruvian  Legation.  During  the  administration  of  the 
dictator  Prado  he  was  prefect  of  Cuzco,  and  when  the  war  of  the  Pacific  began,  he  was 
among  the  first  to  march  to  Tarapaca  with  his  famous  battalion,  "Zepita,"  which  he  com- 
manded as  Lieutenant  Colonel;  his  bravery  at  Tarapaca,  Tacna,  Chorillos,  Miraflores,  Pucara, 
and  Huamachuco,  made  his  name  renowned  in  war,  as  his  efforts  to  establish  reform  and 
progress  in  the  government,  which  he  twice  directed  as  chief  executive,  have  brought  him 
fame  in  the  victories  of  peace. 

The  result  of  the  elections  of  189^  was  the  choice  of  Don  Nicolas  de  Pierola,  a  well- 
known  statesman,  whose  government  was  one  of  order  and  improvement  in  financial 
and  industrial  affairs.  During  his  administration  the  gold  standard  was  adopted  in  Peru, 
the  monetary  unit  being  the  Peruvian  pound,  equal  in  weight  and  fineness  to  the  English 
pound  sterling.  This  reform  has  greatly  stimulated  the  investment  of  foreign  capital  in 
Peru,  the  stability  of  exchange  being  an  important  factor  in  attracting  all  kinds  of  enterprises. 
Among  other  noted  reforms.  President  Pierola  secured  the  reorganization  of  the  army, 
obtaining  from  the  French  government  the  appointment  of  a  military  mission  to  direct  this 
work ;  a  military  school',  under  the  direction  of  French  officers,  was  established,  which  has 
proved  eminently  satisfactory.  To  President  Pierola  is  also  due  the  inauguration  of  the 
national  general  postoffice,  and  projects  for  the  construction  of  a  state  prison,  an  insane  asylum, 
and  other  edifices.    His  government  was  marked  by  peace  and  order,  and  the  country  made 


PERU  UNDER  REPUBLICAN  GOI/ERNMENT  159 

rapid  progress  in  recuperating  from  the  effects  of  the  war  of  the  Pacific.  President  Pierola 
was  succeeded  by  President  Eduardo  Lopez  de  Romafia,  who  continued  the  work  of 
peaceful  development,  retiring  from  office  at  the  end  of  his  term  to  give  place  to  President 
Manuel  Candamo,  who  was  elected  in  190J. 

President  Candamo  was  a  statesman  of  progressive  ideas  and  lofty  principles,  and  a 
leader  of  the  Civil  party,  founded  by  Don  Manuel  Pardo;  his  programme  of  government 
included  many  important  measures  for  the  national  well-being.  A  law  was  passed  devoting 
the  product  of  the  tobacco  tax  to  the  construction  of  new  railways,  and  taxes  were  decreed 
which  doubled  the  fiscal  revenue  of  the  state.  Every  effort  was  made  to  turn  the  people 
away  from  a  bitter  contemplation  of  the  past,  with  its  terrible  experiences,  and  to  direct 
them  toward  a  brighter  future.  The  remembrance  of  suffering  and  loss,  under  peculiarly 
unfortunate  circumstances,  was  resolutely  stifled,  to  give  place  to  the  nobler  sentiments  of 
aspiration  and  hope,  under  the  guiding  genius  of  a  leader  who  believed  in  looking  forward, 
not  backward;  in  overcoming  hard  conditions,  not  in  bewailing  them.  And  the  people 
were  ready  to  follow  the  wise  direction  of  a  chief  executive  who  stimulated  them  to  make 
their  best  endeavors  and  who  encouraged  education,  industrial  development,  and  commer- 
cial activity  by  every  possible  means.  The  administration  of  President  Candamo  marked 
the  inauguration  of  a  new  era  for  Peru.  The  strife  that  had  followed  the  period  of  war 
was  buried  away  never  to  be  resurrected.  Tlie  sentiment  of  the  nation  was  shown  to  be 
in  accord  with  all  that  contributed  to  the  peaceful  progress  of  the  country.  The  principles 
of  industry  and  prudence  which  had  been  so  earnestly  upheld  by  his  illustrious  political 
teacher,  Don  Manuel  Pardo,  were  sustained  and  made  more  popular  than  they  had  ever 
been,  by  the  example  of  the  new  leader,  who  was  the  second  president  elected  by  the 
Civil  party.  But  his  patriotic  efforts  were  cut  short  by  his  death  only  seven  months 
after  being  elected  to  office,  and  the  nation  was  called  to  mourn  the  loss  of  one  of  its 
most  illustrious  sons.  The  demonstration  of  grief  with  which  the  sad  news  of  Presi- 
dent Candamo's  death  was  greeted  in  every  town  and  hamlet  of  the  republic  afforded 
a  touching  evidence  of  the  esteem  and  affection  he  had  won  from  all  classes,  the  rich  and 
the  poor,  the  proud  and  the  humble,  by  his  high  principle  and  sterling  patriotism.  The 
funeral  ceremonies  were  attended  witli  every  honor  that  a  sorrowing  nation  could  bestow 
in  recognition  of  the  dignity  and  glory  with  which  their  lamented  president  had  served  his 
country.  On  the  death  of  President  Candamo,  the  second  vice-president,  Seilor  Serapio 
Calderon,  succeeded  to  the  office  of  chief  executive.  He  governed  with  prudence  and  suc- 
cess during  the  months  that  intervened  between  tlie  death  of  President  Candamo  and  the 
inauguration  of  his  successor,  a  period  that  was  marked  by  the  unsettled  conditions  which 
are  usual  during  the  year  of  the  presidential  election  in  all  republican  countries.  By  his 
authority  a  general  election  was  called  which  resulted  in  the  choice  of  Dr.  Jose  Pardo  as 
president  of  the  republic.  The  proclamation  of  his  election  was  attended  by  demonstra- 
tions of  the  national  enthusiasm  in  a  series  of  banquets  and  speeches  in  all  the  cities  of 
the  republic,  which  afforded  opportunity  for  the  expression  of  the  spontaneous  and  sincere 


i6o 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


admiration  of  his  devoted  supporters.  His  youthful  appearance  and  distinguished  presence 
added  to  the  interest  which  a  recognition  of  his  well-proved  ability  and  energy  gained 
from  the  applauding  multitude,  and  the  vivas  carried  a  note  of  affection  as  well  as  esteem 
as  they  were  repeated  in  every  street  and  alley  of  the  capital.  On  the  24th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1904,  he  was  inaugurated  by  the  sovereign  will  of  the  nation,  in  accordance  with 
the  principles  of  the  Civil  party,  founded  by  his  illustrious  father.  The  record  of  his 
administration  affords  ample  proof  of  the  good  judgment  of  the  people  who  elected  him 
their  chief  executive. 


COAT-OF-ARMS  OF   PERU 


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CHAPTER  X 


THE   ADMINISTRATION   OF   PRESIDENT   JOSE   PARDO 


T' 


'HE  inauguration  of  Dr.  Jose  Pardo  took 
place  amid  the  enthusiastic  demonstra- 
tions of  a  people  who  recognized  in  their 
chosen  leader  a  statesman  of  upright  char- 
acter and  worthy  principles,  well  equipped  to 
maintain  the  authority  of  a  just,  liberal,  and 
progressive  government.  There  was  more 
than  the  jubilant  celebration  of  a  victorious 
party  in  the  festivities  of  that  day,  the  nation 
exhibiting  an  affectionate  pride  in  the  acces- 
sion of  their  young  president,  who  followed 
in  the  path  opened  up  by  his  illustrious  father 
and  illuminated  by  President  Candamo,  and 
who  thus  represented  the  highest  hopes  of 
civil  government. 

Although  only  forty  years  of  age  at  the 
time  of  his  election,  President  Pardo  was 
an  experienced  statesman  and  diplomatist, 
having  been  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  and 
President  of  the  Council  of  Ministers  during  the  administration  of  President  Candamo,  as  well 
as  diplomatic  representative  of  the  government  on  a  special  mission  to  the  Court  of  Spain 
in  a  previous  administration.  His  education,  which  began  in  the  Lima  Institute,  a  college 
founded  by  President  Manuel  Pardo,  was  directed  in  accordance  with  the  liberal  ideas  that 
governed  his  father's  principles,  and  from  the  beginning  it  became  evident  that  the  student 
would  develop  into  the  statesman.  When  he  was  graduated  from  the  University  of  San 
Marcos  at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  he  held  the  degrees  of  Doctor  of  Jurisprudence  and  Doctor 

of  Political  and  Social  Science.     During  President  Candamo's  term.  Dr.  Pardo  successfully 

163 


POST  OFFICE.  LIMA. 


i64  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

advocated  the  settlement  by  arbitration  of  difficult  questions  between  his  country  and 
Bolivia,  Ecuador,  and  Brazil ;  and,  as  president  of  the  ministerial  council,  he  was  the  principal 
leader  in  framing  important  laws  for  the  building  of  railroads  and  for  fiscal  reform  which 
were  afterward  sanctioned  by  Congress. 

When  President  Pardo  assumed  office,  he  proceeded,  with  energy  and  decision,  though 
without  any  ostentatious  display  of  reform,  to  carry  into  effect  the  policy  which  he  had 
adopted,  and  which  was  declared  in  his  inaugural  message.  The  keynote  of  his  adminis- 
tration is  industrial  and  educational  progress,  and  at  no  time  in  the  history  of  Peru  have  its 
public  institutions  and  private  enterprises  been  in  a  more  advanced  and  promising  condi- 
tion. Toleration  in  religion,  justice  in  legislation,  and  an  earnest  endeavor  to  promote  the 
well-being  of  the  country,  morally  and  materially,  have  been  exemplified  in  the  attitude  of 
President  Pardo's  government  throughout  the  four  years  that  he  has  guided  the  destinies  of 
the  nation.  In  foreign  relations,  Peru  has  attained  a  more  honored  position  than  ever  before. 
The  nation  was  represented  with  distinction  in  the  Pan-American  Conference  at  Rio  de  Janeiro 
in  1906,  and  at  the  International  Conference  of  the  Hague  in  1907.  In  home  government,  in 
military  matters,  in  the  departments  of  justice  and  public  instruction,  in  finance,  and  in  the 
development  of  public  works  of  enormous  benefit  to  the  country,  the  results  of  a  wise  and 
careful  direction  of  executive  authority  are  to  be  seen.  Education  has  been  reformed  and 
established  on  a  uniform  and  democratic  basis,  the  annual  appropriation  of  funds  for  this  pur- 
pose having  been  increased  under  the  present  government  to  three  times  the  amount  formerly 
set  aside  for  its  maintenance ;  it  now  amounts  to  nearly  one-tenth  of  the  budget.  The  postal 
service  has  received  especial  attention,  and  improvements  have  been  made  which  render  it 
one  of  the  most  efficient  branches  of  public  administration.  The  reconstruction  of  the  national 
navy  has  been  effected  during  the  present  term,  the  new  cruisers,  Grau  and  Bolognesi, 
which  arrived  in  1907  from  the  European  shipyards,  being  handsome  modern  battleships. 

Industrial  progress  has  been  fostered  and  encouraged  by  the  extension  of  railways, 
and  new  lines  are  under  construction  in  every  part  of  the  republic.  Commerce  has 
increased  every  year  and  the  fiscal  receipts  have  nearly  doubled  within  the  past  four  years. 
Foreign  capitalists  are  constantly  making  new  investments  in  the  country,  the  statistics 
showing  that  twenty-nine  mining  and  agricultural  enterprises  were  established  in  Peru  in 
1907,  of  which  a  great  many  were  of  foreign  ownership.  The  sources  of  national  wealth 
have  increased,  partly  owing  to  the  discovery  of  valuable  mines  of  coal  and  petroleum  and 
to  the  revival  of  Peru's  guano  industry,  which  promises  to  be  richer  in  production  than  ever 
before.  The  interests  of  agriculture  have  been  promoted  by  a  careful  study  of  its  needs  in 
the  various  regions;  hydrographic  experts  have  been  employed  to  solve  the  problem  of 
irrigation  in  the  dry  sections  of  the  coast  and  artesian  wells  have  been  sunk  at  various  points 
in  the  northern  district.  The  importation  of  thoroughbred  stock,  the  employment  of  foreign 
specialists  in  the  various  branches  of  husbandry  to  give  lectures  on  the  subject,  and  the  free 
and  liberal  distribution  of  pamphlets,  reports,  and  maps  throughout  the  farming  communities 
have  been  among  the  activities  of  the  government  in  behalf  of  agricultural  reform. 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  PRESIDENT  JOSE  PARDO 


.65 


Public   health  receives  greater  consideration  and  attention  than  formerly,  Congress 
having  voted  large  sums  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  sanitary  works  in  the  centres  of 


PATIO  OF   THE   POST  OFFICE.  LIMA. 


population  throughout  the  republic,  especially  in  the  ports.  Commissions,  composed  of 
medical  men  and  engineers,  have  undertaken  the  improvement  of  sanitary  and  hygienic 
conditions,  and  this  important  reform  is  now  far  advanced,  many  cities  already  enjoying 
its  benefits. 

President  Pardo  has  been  ably  assisted  in  his  administration  by  the  members  of  his 
cabinet,  who  have  carried  out  the  policy  of  their  chief  with  unfailing  judgment.  When 
elected,  he  selected  the  following  well-known  statesmen  to  form  his  ministerial  council : 
Dr.  Javier  Prado  y  Ugarteche,  Foreign  Affairs;  Dr.  Augusto  Leguia,  Finance;  Dr.  Eulogio 
Romero,  Government  and  Home  Affairs;  General  Mufiiz,  War  and  Marine;  Dr.  Jorge 
Polar,  Justice,  Public  Instruction  and  Worship;  Dr.  Jose  Balta,  Public  Works.  The 
Minister  of  Public  Works  is  also  Minister  of  Fomento,  having  in  charge  the  patronage,  or 
promotion,  of  public  enterprises.  Under  the  direction  of  this  cabinet  the  affairs  of  the 
administration  were  conducted  with  eminent  success,  and  when  it  was  succeeded  by 
the  present  executive  council,  the  progressive  policy  that  had  been  so  well  interpreted 
was  continued,  and  still  reigns.  The  members  of  the  cabinet  at  present  are:  Dr.  Solon 
Polo,  Foreign  Affairs;   Dr.  Carlos  Washburn,  Justice,   Public   Instruction  and  Worship; 


1 66 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


Dr.  German  Schreiber,  Finance;  Dr.  German  Arenas,  Government  and  Home  Affairs; 
General  Juan  N.  Elespuru,  War  and  Marine;  Dr.  Delfin  Vidalon,  Fomento  and  Public  Works. 

Dr.  Solon  Polo,  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  one  of 
the  best  informed  statesmen  of  Peru  regarding  diplomatic  questions  between  his  country 
and  foreign  powers.  He  has  had  large  experience  in  the  affairs  of  government,  and,  added 
to  this  advantage,  he  has  the  gift  of  diplomacy,  these  two  factors  accounting  for  the  prestige 
the  Foreign  Office  enjoys  under  his  administration.  Since  his  appointment  as  Foreign 
Minister,  the  question  of  boundaries, — which  constitutes  the  chief  element  of  discord 
between  South  American  countries, — has  approached  nearer  its  final  solution  so  far  as  Peru 
is  concerned,  and  friendly  relations  exist  between  that  country  and  her  neighbors;  though 
Chile  still  postpones  the  settlement  of  the  Tacna  and  Arica  question,  the  plebiscite  which 
was  to  have  been  held  some  years  ago  not  yet  having  taken  place.  The  dependencies  of 
the  Foreign  Office  in  Europe  and  America  have  maintained  the  utmost  concord  with  the 
Ministt'i'io,  and  the  foreign  diplomatic  corps  has  cordially  reciprocated  its  friendly  attitude. 
The  Peruvian  Minister  to  Washington,  Dr.  Felipe  Pardo,  has  been  active  in  promoting  good 
feeling  between  his  country  and  the  United  States ;  in  conveying  the  invitation  from  the 
Foreign  Office  to  Mr.  Root  to  visit  Peru,  in  1906,  he  did  so  in  such  pleasing  language  that  the 
great  statesman  referred  to  its  gracious  character  more  than  once,  with  evident  appreciation. 

Dr.  Carlos  Washburn,  the  Minister  of  Justice,  Public  histruction  and  Worship,  is 
President  of  the  cabinet.     His  department  supervises  the  various  judicial  institutions,  the 


IHl;    PkbSIDLNT'S    CUACII    LEAVING    THE    GOVERNMENT    PALACE    lOR    THE    HOUSE    Ol     CONGRESS. 


plan  of  national  education,  and  the  ecclesiastical  government  of  the  country.    Dr.  Washburn 
is  a  jurist  of  eminent  talent  and  has  had  a  distinguished  career  in  the  administration  of 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  PRESIDENT  JOS^  PARDO  167 

justice.  He  was  Judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of  Lima  when  called  to  the  higher  post. 
During  the  present  term,  tlie  department  of  justice  has  established  a  superior  court  in 
Iquitos,  and  lias  instituted  various  reforms.  The  publication  of  the  judicial  annals  and  the 
adoption  of  regulations  governing  judicial  statistics  have  been  accomplished  to  facilitate 
the  public  administration.  Dr.  Cavero,  first  vice-president  of  the  republic,  and  magistrate 
of  the  supreme  court,  with  the  cooperation  of  a  committee  on  legislative  procedure,  is 
occupied  in  the  preparation  of  a  project  for  the  reform  of  the  penal  code,  a  work  for  which 
his  great  experience  and  superior  knowledge  particularly  qualify  this  learned  statesman. 
The  penitentiary  and  the  boys'  correctional  school  are  conducted  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Minister  of  Justice,  improvements  have  been  effected  in  both  these  institutions,  the  former 
having  been  enlarged  and  modern  accommodations  added  during  the  present  administra- 
tion, while  the  latter  has  extended  its  beneficent  influence  more  widely  than  ever,  giving  to  a 
class  of  boys  most  lacking  in  training  the  advantages  of  learning  a  trade  and  becoming  worthy 
citizens.  The  school  provides  manual  work  for  its  inmates,  who,  as  a  rule,_  are  apt  and  dili- 
gent; the  average  "bad  boy"  is  usually  possessed  of  extraordinary  energy,  and  it  is  the  aim 
of  this  school  to  direct  it  to  a  worthy  purpose.  It  is  one  of  the  most  successful  reformatories 
of  South  America,  and  the  work  done  in  carpentry,  tailoring,  shoemaking,  and  other  trades 
is  creditable  to  the  intelligence  of  the  boys  and  to  the  discipline  of  the  school  authorities. 

One  of  the  most  important  charges  of  the  department  under  Dr.  Washburn's  adminis- 
tration is  the  national  education,  which  has  made  remarkable  progress.  In  ecclesiastical 
matters,  as  pertaining  to  public  worship,  this  ministry  has  rendered  valuable  services  to  the 
established  church,  apostolic  prefectures,  under  instructions  from  this  oifice,  fulfilling  the 
requirements  of  ecclesiastical  authority  in  the  various  departments.  On  the  death  of  Mon- 
sefior  Tovar,  Archbishop  of  Lima,  Archbishop  Naranjo  was  appointed  to  the  metropolitan 
See.  The  late  archbishop  was  greatly  beloved  by  the  nation  and  his  death  was  an  occasion 
of  mourning  throughout  the  republic.  Archbishop  Naranjo,  the  illustrious  prelate  who 
governs  the  archdiocese  at  present,  is  revered  for  his  exemplary  virtues  and  highly  esteemed 
for  his  scholarship. 

Dr.  German  Schreiber,  who  succeeded  Dr.  Augusto  Leguia  as  Minister  of  Finance,  is 
well  equipped  for  the  duties  of  his  important  office,  having  had  exceptional  experience  in 
financial  administration  previous  to  his  appointment  to  the  post.  This  department  of  the 
government  supervises  the  national  budget.  Orders  issued  by  the  Ministers  of  State  on 
the  national  treasury  can  be  paid  only  with  a  warrant  drawn  on  the  Minister  of  Finance,  this 
document  showing  the  number  of  the  corresponding  item  in  the  budget,  or  containing  the 
supreme  decree  authorizing  the  payment.  Each  Departamento  keeps  its  own  accounts, 
which  assures  regularity  in  the  expenses  of  the  different  prefectures.  The  reorganization 
of  the  custom  house  service  has  received  the  especial  attention  of  the  Finance  Minister,  with 
satisfactory  results. 

Under  the  head  of  Government  and  Home  Affairs,  Dr.  German  Arenas  supervises  legis- 
lative matters,  public  order,  political  administration,  government  buildings,  etc.,  and  the  postal 


i68 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


and  telegraph  service.    The  development  of  industry  and  wealth  has  naturally  given  rise  to 

greater  ambition  among  the  laboring  classes,  and 
the  struggle  between  capital  and  labor  has  brought 
about  occasional  huelgas,  or  "strikes,"  in  the 
larger  cities;  but  the  authorities  have  been  able  to 
avoid  any  violent  attacks  on  property,  and  public 
tranquillity  has  been  easily  restored.  The  police 
system,  reorganized  and  reinforced  by  a  large 
number  of  mounted  troops,  is  better  prepared 
than  ever  before  to  maintain  respect  for  the  law. 
The  modern  improvements  made  in  the 
postal  service  by  the  present  executive  have 
been  demanded  as  the  result  of  a  remarkable 
increase  in  correspondence  passing  through  the 
various  post  offices  of  the  country.  During  the 
past  year,  the  general  post  office  has  increased 
its  capacity  and  new  branches  have  been  estab- 
lished in  numerous  districts  of  all  the  Departa- 
mentos  of  the  republic.  Great  obstacles  have 
been  overcome  in  placing  the  post  office  on  the 
present  high  plane  of  efficiency.  The  vast  extent 
of  territory  traversed  by  mountain  ranges  and 
cut  by  immense  cations  has  made  the  question 
of  postal  delivery  an  exceptionally  hard  problem 
to  the  government,  as  the  expenses  of  maintain- 
ing the  service  were  formerly  far  in  excess  of 
the  receipts.  Owing  to  the  expansion  of  trade, 
the  increase  of  population,  and  the  careful  atten- 
tion lately  given  to  this  branch  of  the  adminis- 
tration, the  post  office  has  shown  a  surplus  of 
receipts  over  expenditures  during  the  past  three 
years.  Peru  is  a  member  of  the  Universal 
Postal  Union,  and  its  relations  with  the  post 
offices  of  foreign  countries  are  maintained  with 
great  credit  to  its  government.  The  issue  of 
post  office  orders  and  the  service  of  parcels  post 
have  been  established  between  Peru  and  the 
United  States,  England,  and  Bolivia,  arrangements 
being  under  way  to  extend  these  advantages  to 
Italy,  Japan,  and  Chile. 


MONUMENT   TO  BOLOGNESI. 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  PRESIDENT  JOS^  PARDO 


169 


The  telegraph  service  extends  from  one  end  of  Peru  to  the  other,  the  capital  being 
united  by  wire  with  the  most  remote  departments  of  the  republic.  The  system  covers 
more  than  three  thousand  miles  of  telegraph  wires.  The  first  line  in  Peru  was  constructed 
by  private  enterprise  in  1864  between  Lima  and  Callao,  the  government  assuming  the 
administration  of  the  public  telegraphs  in  1^7^.  The  national  wires  connect  at  the  boundary 
line  with  those  of  neighboring  republics,  making  a  general  South  American  system. 

The  Minister  of  War  and  Marine,  General  Juan  N.  Elespuru,  is  a  distinguished  soldier 
and  statesman,  universally  admired  for  his  military  talent  and  the  noble  qualities  of  his 
character.  His  administration  is  devoted  especially  to  those  matters  which  tend  to  the 
elevation  of  the  army,  and  particularly  to  its  education.  Civil  as  well  as  military  instruction 
is  provided  in  the  quartel,  and  the  standard  of  training  in  the  military  schools  is  higher  than 
it  has  ever  been.  The  French  military  commission,  engaged  in  1896  to  reorganize  the  army, 
under  the  direct  authority  of  the  War  Office,  has  accomplished  an  important  work,  with  the 
entire  approval  of  the  government.  The  head  of  the  commission,  Brigadier-general  Pablo 
Clement,  is  chief  of  the  general  staff  and  is  consulted  on  all  matters  relating  to  the  instruc- 
tion and  organization  of  the  army.  One  of  the  captains  of  the  commission  has  charge  of  the 
Military  High  School,  and  another,  of  tlie  Military  Academy,  in  Chorillos.  The  latter,  created 
for  the  technical  and  practical  instruction  of  commissioned  and  non-commissioned  officers 
destined  to  serve  in  the  army,  has  been  most  important  in  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the 


THE   WAR   ARSENAL,   LIMA. 


military  service.  Annexed  to  the  Military  Academy  is  a  school  of  musketry  for  technical 
instruction  in  the  use  of  portable  arms.  The  preparatory  school  and  the  school  of  applica- 
tion afford  instruction  for  beginners. 


lyo 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEM/  PERU 


The  army  consists  of  six  battalions  of  infantry;  a  regiment  of  mountain  artillery,  a  group 
of  field  artillery,  and  a  group  of  artillery  of  sappers  and  miners;  and  six  squadrons  of  cavalry, 
including  the  president's  escort.    The  various  auxiliary  corps  include  the  general  commissary 

of  the  army,  the  ordnance  store,  the  military  health 
department,  and  a  supreme  military  and  naval  coun- 
cil. The  infantry  arms  are  Mauser  rifles  of  seventy- 
five  millimeters  calibre;  the  cavalry  and  mountain 
artillery  carry  the  carbine  of  the  same  model,  the 
artillery  having  also  field  batteries  formed  of  the 
latest  Schneider-Canet  guns.  Military  service  is 
obligatory  on  all  Peruvians  between  nineteen  and 
fifty  years  of  age,  excepting  directors  of  public 
schools,  college  professors  and  all  who  hold  a 
diploma,  exercising  a  liberal  profession.  The  or- 
ganization of  the  reserves  and  their  mobilization  is 
regulated  by  the  establishment  in  each  Department 
of  battalions  of  sappers,  consisting  of  four  hundred 
and  forty-eight  men,  and,  in  eleven  Departments,  of 
cavalry  squadrons  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine 
men.  Peruvians  from  thirty-five  to  fifty  years  of 
age  form  the  national  guard.  By  the  well-regu- 
lated system  of  conscription  in  force,  Peru  will 
have  in  a  few  years,  in  addition  to  its  well-drilled 
army,  a  host  of  instructed  reserves,  requiring  only 
a  few  drills  to  transform  them  into  able  soldiers. 
The  republic  is  divided  into  four  military  zones,  the 
capitals  being  Piura  in  the  northern,  Lima  in  the 
central,  Arequipa  in  the  southern,  and  Iquitos  in 
the  eastern  zone.  These  districts  are  subdivided 
into  eleven  commands,  composed  of  twenty-two  de- 
partments and  colonies.  Under  the  direction  of  the 
army  authorities,  troops  of  mounted  police,  numbering  two  thousand  two  hundred  men, 
serve  in  each  department. 

The  navy,  which,  like  the  army,  is  a  dependency  of  the  War  Office,  has  now  three 
cruisers  and  three  transports,  and  its  reconstruction  has  been  accompanied  by  the  organization 
of  a  Naval  School,  under  the  direction  of  an  officer  of  the  French  Navy.  In  this  institution 
students  are  given  the  professional,  theoretical,  and  military  instruction  necessary  to  qualify 
them  as  midshipmen,  three  years'  service  qualifying  for  the  rank  of  sub-lieutenant.  On  board 
the  training  ship  Constitucion,  civil,  professional,  naval,  and  military  instruction  is  provided,  after 
which  the  practicante  passes  to  the  vessels  of  the  squadron,  wherein  he  serves  for  five  years. 


INFANTRY  UNIFORM,   PERUVIAN  ARMY. 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  PRESIDENT  JOSE  PARDO 


171 


At  present  three  Peruvian  midshipmen  are  completing  their  practical  instruction  on  board 
United  States  warships,  and  seven  are  gaining  experience  in  the  Royal  Spanish  Navy. 


MK    ROOT   AT   Tlia   NATIONAL   CLUB,  LIMA. 


The  progressive  policy  of  President  Pardo's  government  is  nowhere  more  conspicuously 
seen  than  in  the  Department  of  Public  Works.  The  minister,  Dr.  Delfm  Vidalon,  last  year 
published  the  report  of  his  office  in  a  volume  of  six  hundred  pages,  every  line  of  which 
bore  reference  to  important  industrial,  commercial,  or  benevolent  reforms  in  the  numerous 
sections  subject  to  his  administration.  In  the  direction  of  Fomento,  which  includes  all 
matters  relating  to  agriculture,  mines,  immigration,  and  various  industries,  as  well  as  benevo- 
lent institutions,  the  amount  of  labor  accomplished  is  phenomenal.  Public  works  have  been 
carried  out  on  a  vast  scale,  and  in  accordance  with  the  most  modern  ideas.  Railways,  port 
works,  and  irrigation  have  occupied  the  best  engineers  of  the  government.  Sanitation  and 
hygiene,  an  important  charge  of  this  office,  have  received  especial  attention.  The  wireless 
telegraph,  or  radiograph,  has  been  installed  in  the  Amazon  region,  and  successful  experi- 
ments have  been  made  in  the  use  of  this  method  of  transmitting  messages  across  the  virgin 
forests  of  the  tropics.  A  German  company  has  successfully  established  radiographic  com- 
munication from  Puerto  Bermudez  on  the  river  Pichis  to  Masisea  on  the  Ucayali,  this  being 
the  first  attempt  ever  made  to  cross  a  territory  densely  covered  by  tropical  vegetation.  Two 
stations  have  been  built,  of  three  towers,  each  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height.  The 
system  is  now  being  extended  to  Iquitos  on  the  Amazon  River.  The  question  of  public 
health  is  recognized  by  the  government  as  of  paramount  importance  to  the  well-being  of  the 
state,  and  the  Department  of  Public  Health  has  recently  been  made  a  dependency  of 
the  Ministry  of  Fomento.     It  is  divided  into  two  sections,  hygiene  and  demography,  and 


172 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


has  the  supervision  of  sanitary  corps,  vaccination,  and  all  lazarettos  of  the  republic.  The 
sanitary  corps  have  charge  of  the  inspection  of  the  ports, — the  maritime  sanitary  defence 
being  governed  by  regulations  of  the  sanitary  police,  in  accordance  with  the  International 
Sanitary  Convention  held  in  Washington, — and  sanitary  stations  are  established  at  Paita,  llo, 
and  Callao.  By  this  new  organization,  the  means  of  guarding  the  health  of  the  community 
is  greatly  simplified.  Vaccination  is  obligatory  in  Peru.  Sanitary  inspection  governs  railway 
as  well  as  steamboat  traffic.    The  results  are  better  health  conditions  in  all  the  cities. 

The  four  years  during  which  President  Pardo  has  governed  Peru  have  been  marked 
by  events  of  the  greatest  significance,  not  only  in  tlie  history  of  that  republic  but  in  the 
annals  of  South  American  politics.  The  visit  of  Secretary  Root  of  the  United  States  in  1906 
and  the  passing  of  the  great  Atlantic  Squadron  in  1 908,  are  incidents  that  deserve  to  be  recorded. 
Especially  is  this  true  as  regards  Peru.  The  visit  of  Secretary  Root  was  more  than  a  part 
of  the  programme  carried  out  by  that  distinguished  statesman  in  his  tour  of  South  America. 


THE  CENTRAL   MARKET,  LIMA. 


It  was,  as  he  himself  expressed  it,  when  responding  to  the  spontaneous  and  generous 
welcome  given  him  by  the  Peruvian  people,  the  renewal  of  an  old,  constant,  and  cordial 
friendship  between  the  Peruvian  people  and  their  cousins  of  the  United  States.  He  said: 
"  I  have  come  here,  not  to  look  for  new  friends,  but  to  salute  the  old  ones;  not  to  initiate 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  PRESIDENT  JOSE  PARDO 


m 


any  new  policy,  but  to  follow  up  the  old  and  honored  course ;  and  on  coming  to  South 
America,  responding  to  the  invitations  from  the  different  countries,  going  down  by  the 
eastern  coast  and  coming  up  by  the  western,  to  pass  by  Peru  without  stopping  liere  would 
make  my  trip  as  incomplete  as  a  representation  of  Shakespeare's  'Hamlet'  without  the 
appearance    of    Hamlet    on    the  c^d^xiuo. 

stage."  This  frank  expression 
of  friendship  was  genuinely  ap- 
preciated, as  it  showed  that  the 
warm  sentiments  which  found 
voice  in  President  Pardo's  address 
of  welcome  were  thoroughly  re- 
ciprocated. Nothing  could  have 
been  more  pleasing  to  Mr.  Root 
than  the  following  words,  from 
the  president's  speech:  "These 
sentiments  of  sympathy  and  ad- 
miration shone  forth  at  the  dawn 
of  Independence,  because  the 
founders  of  the  Great  Republic 
pointed  out  to  our  ancestors  the 
way  that  led  to  freedom;  and 
they  have  been  gaining  strength 
since  the  first  days  of  our  auto- 
nomic existence,  owing  to  the 
bond  which  the  admirable  fore- 
sight of  another  great  statesman 
of  your  country  extended  over 
this  American  land." 

Mr.  Root's  visit  to  Peru  was 
an  occasion  of  great  interest  to  the 

North  American  statesman,  who  had  an  opportunity  to  become  acquainted  with  the  various 
important  institutions  of  the  country.  A  special  session  of  the  Senate,  under  the  presidency 
of  Dr.  Manuel  Barrios,  was  held  to  receive  Mr.  Root.  On  the  day  preceding  his  visit  to  the 
Senate,  Secretary  Root  was  elected  an  honorary  member  of  the  Faculty  of  Political  and 
Administrative  Sciences  of  the  University,  founded  by  President  Pardo's  father.  This  im- 
pressive ceremony  was  performed  in  the  presence  of  the  entire  University,  presided  over 
by  its  president,  Dr.  Villaran,  and  the  Deans  of  the  Faculties,  and  attended  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Republic,  the  Cabinet  Ministers,  and  the  Military  Staff  of  his  Excellency.  To  a 
statesman  and  scholar  of  Mr.  Root's  experience  and  knowledge,  it  was  both  a  pleasure  and  a 
profit  to  receive  the  many  gracious  assurances  of  appreciation  which  were  extended  to  him  in 


PERUVIAN    MARINES. 


'74 


THE  OLD  ^ND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


Peru ;  and  in  return,  the  Peruvian  people  had  tlie  satisfaction  of  learning  the  opinion  of  an 
eminent  foreigner  regarding  their  political  and  educational  advancement.  Mr.  Root  found  the 
evidences  of  progress  most  creditable  to  the  nation,  and  said  that  the  difference  between  the 
country  to-day  and  what  it  was  a  generation  ago  was  as  great  as  the  difference  marked  by 
centuries  in  the  history  of  European  countries.  The  cordial  relations  existing  between  the 
two  countries,  more  firmly  united  than  ever  by  the  visit  of  Secretary  Root,  were  still  further 
strengthened  when  the  American  Squadron  arrived  at  Callao.  Its  officers  and  crew  were 
received  by  the  citizens  of  that  port  and  of  the  capital  with  the  heartiest  demonstrations  of 
welcome.  The  entertainment  of  tlie  fleet  devolved  upon  the  Foreign  Office,  and  Dr.  Polo 
interpreted  the  wishes  of  the  president  and  of  the  nation  by  extending  to  Admiral  Evans  and  his 
officers  every  courtesy  and  attention  that  an  appreciative  host  could  bestow  on  a  welcome  guest. 
The  secret  of  the  sympathy  existing  between  Peru  and  the  United  States  lies  largely  in 
the  similarity  of  the  national  ideals,  which  in  botli  countries  are  centred  in  liberal  principles 
of  civil  government.  The  Civil  party  which  elected  President  Pardo  stands  for  the  most 
progressive  politics  of  Peru.  The  illustrious  statesman  who  presides  over  its  councils  at 
present,  Dr.  Augusto  Leguia,  has  just  received  the  highest  proof  of  the  nation's  esteem  for 
his  genius  and  patriotism,  in  the  announcement  of  his  election  to  succeed  Dr.  Pardo  as 
President  of  Peru.  The  election  took  place  in  May,  1908,  and  the  successful  candidate  is 
to  be  inaugurated  on  the  24th  of  September,  1908.  The  president-elect  is  one  of  Peru's 
greatest  men,  his  name  being  especially  identified,  as  Finance  Minister,  with  the  successful 
financial  operations  of  the  present  government  during  the  first  three  years  of  Dr.  Pardo's  term ; 
his  knowledge  of  all  that  pertains  to  this  important  branch  of  the  government  is  unequalled 
by  that  of  any  other  Peruvian  statesman.  A  gentleman  of  distinguished  family  and  most 
attractive  personality,  as  well  as  a  statesman  of  extraordinary  ability.  Dr.  Leguia  is  a  worthy 
successor  of  President  Pardo,  who  by  his  admirable  qualities  of  mind  and  heart  has  endeared 
himself  to  all  Peruvians  and  won  the  respect  and  esteem  of  all  foreigners  in  his  country. 


THE   PERUVIAN   IRONCLAD  GRAU,  IN   THE   HARBOR   OF  CALLAO. 


of  THE 


University. 

or        . 


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H 
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(/) 

O) 

GO 

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O 

O 
_i 

o 

CQ 

LL 
O 

O 


> 


CHAPTER  XI 


THE   POLITICAL   ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   REPUBLIC 


nPHE  national  constitution,  on  which  is  based 
^  the  present  political  organization  of  Peru, 
stands  a  lasting  monument  to  the  patriotism  and 
genius  of  the  statesmen  in  whose  hands  was 
placed  the  responsibility  of  framing  it,  and  does 
credit  to  the  democratic  principles  of  the  nation 
whose  sovereign  will  is  manifested  in  its  laws 
and  provisions.  For  nearly  half  a  century,  the 
government  of  Peru  has  been  building  its  strength 
on  this  solid  foundation  of  broad  purpose  and 
practical  ideals,  and  to-day  the  aspirations  of  its 
rulers  are  being  realized  with  ever-increasing 
success.  The  aim  of  the  present  administration, 
admirably  expressed  by  one  of  the  leading  states- 
men of  Peru,  is  that  of  a  modern  people  striving 
to  attain  their  highest  welfare  and  aggrandize- 
ment: "To  develop  the  immense  resources  and 
wealth  with  which  nature  has  so  wonderfully 
endowed  the  land;  to  render  the  territory  accessi- 
ble to  labor  and  civilization  by  opening  up  means 
of  communication,  granting  all  kinds  of  facilities 
and  giving  security  for  the  life,  health,  and  welfare 
of  the  inhabitants,  in  order  to  obtain  the  population  that  large  territories  require;  to  edu- 
cate and  instruct  the  people,  making  them  understand  their  personality,  their  liberty,  their 
duties,  and  their  rights;  to  develop  their  faculties  and  energies,  their  labor  forces,  their 
industrial  and  commercial  capacity  and  power,  elevate  their  moral  dignity,  consolidate  and 

strengthen  the  national  unity,  insure  definitely  the  government  of  the  people,  of  justice, 

177 


A   kH\ll:\V    OF   THE   TROOPS.  LIMA. 


178 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


of  order,  and  of  peace;  to  attract  capital  and  foreign  immigration,  develop  and  give  impulse 
to  the  commercial  relations  with  other  countries,  maintain  a  frank  and  true  harmony  and 

iprocal  rights,  and  resolve  all  disagreements 

in  short,  a  work  of  human  civilization." 

The  national  constitution  of  Peru  declares  the  form  of  government  to  be  republican, 


international  solidarity,  respect  all  mutual  and  reciproc 
by  frierK!\y,'just  and  honorable  means;  to  perform,  ir 


democraticand 
based  on  the 
three  govern- 
executive,  leg- 
dicial,  each  in- 
the  other  in  the 
authority.  The 
er  is  charged 
of  guarding  the 
ests  of  the  na- 
ing  out  the  pur- 
constitution 
rect  and  capa- 
tion  of  public 
president  of  the 
the  chief  exec- 
by  six  ministers 
direct  the  de- 
Foreign  Affairs; 
and  Home  Af- 
Worship  and 
tion;  War  and 
and  Com- 
Public  Works 
The  first  and 
presidents, 
upon  to  per- 
of  president 
stances  set 
constitution. 


HIS  EXCELLENCY  DR.  AUGUSTO  B.  LEGUIA,   ELECTED  PRESIDENT  OF 
PERU   1908-1912,  TO  BE   INAUGURATED  SEPTEMBER  24,  1908. 


representative, 
unity  of  the 
ing  bodies,  the 
islative,  andju- 
dependent  of 
exercise  of  its 
executive  pow- 
with  the  duty 
general  inter- 
tion,  by  carry- 
poses  of  the 
through  a  cor- 
bie administra- 
affairs,  the 
republic  being 
utive,  assisted 
of  State,  who 
partments  of 
Government 
fairs ;  Justice, 
Public  Instruc- 
Marine;  Finance 
merce;  and 
and  Promotion, 
second  vice- 
who  are  called 
form  the  duties 
under  circum- 
forth  in  the 
are      elected 


simultaneously  with  the  president  and  in  the  same  form,  their  official  term  covering  four  years, 
as  does  that  of  the  president.  The  qualifications  necessary  to  entitle  a  citizen  to  become 
president  are,  that  he  shall  be  a  Peruvian  by  birth,  not  less  than  thirty-five  years  of  age,  and 
have  resided  at  least  ten  years  in  the  country.  As  stated  elsewhere  he  cannot  be  reelected 
president,  nor  can  he  be  elected  vice-president,  until  the  expiration  of  an  intervening  term. 


THE  POLITICAL   ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  REPUBLIC 


179 


The  legislative  power  is  exercised  by  Congress,  composed  of  two  chambers,  the  Senate 
and  the  Ciiamber  of  Deputies.    Senators  are  elected  by  the  departments  (the  largest  and 


^/iJ  (jthJyuJf 


most  important  of  the  territorial  divi- 
sions), each  department  being  entitled 
to  from  one  to  four  senatorial  repre- 
sentatives, according  to  the  number  of 
its  provinces.  In  order  to  be  eligible 
for  the  Senate,  a  candidate  must  be 
over  thirty-tlve  years  of  age.  The 
Chamber  of  Deputies  consists  of  as 
many  representatives  as  there  are 
provinces  or  territories  of  from  fifteen 
thousand  to  thirty  thousand  inhabit- 
ants. Both  senators  and  deputies  are 
elected  for  a  term  of  six  years  by 
direct  vote,  both  must  be  Peruvian 
citizens,  born  in  Peru;  and  a  deputy 
must  be  at  least  twenty-five  years  of 
age.  The  president  of  the  republic, 
vice-presidents,  ministers  of  state, 
prefects  and  sub-prefects  of  depart- 
ments and  the  governors  of  provinces 
are  ineligible  to  membership  in  the 
legislature  until  two  months  after  leav- 
ing their  executive  offices;  the  same 
applies  to  the  judiciary  and  to  all  public 
employes  under  the  direct  authority  of 
the  executive ;  ecclesiastics  cannot  represent  the  departments  or  provinces  of  their  diocese. 
The  regular  sessions  of  Congress  are  opened  on  the  28th  of  July  each  year,  the  term  lasting 
for  ninety  days;  extraordinary  sessions  may  be  convoked  by  the  executive,  with  no  stated 
period  of  duration,  though  they  cannot  be  continued  over  a  term  of  more  than  forty-five  days. 

The  judicial  power  of  the  government  is  administered  by  a  Supreme  Court,  established 
in  Lima,  and  nine  superior  courts,  which  are  installed  in  Lima,  Cuzco,  Arequipa,  Puno,  Aya- 
cucho,  Cajamarca,  Huaraz,  Trujillo,  Piura,  and  Iquitos;  each  of  these  courts  has  jurisdiction 
over  one  or  more  departments.  The  court  of  Tacna,  which  performed  its  labors  until  the 
period  of  the  war  of  the  Pacific,  is  still  in  recess,  and  judicial  questions  arising  in  the  section 
subject  to  Peruvian  authority  are  brought  before  the  court  of  Arequipa.  In  almost  all  the 
provinces  there  are  judges  of  the  first  instance,  and  in  all  districts  are  justices  of  the  peace. 

In  accordance  with  the  national  constitution,  the  local  government  of  the  republic  is 
under  the  direction  of  departmental  and  municipal  boards.    The  departmental  board  has  its 


DR.  EUGENIO  LARRABURE  Y  UNANUE.  ELECTED  VICE-PRESIDENT 
FOR   THE   TERM   1908-1912. 


i8o 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


headquarters  in  the  capital  of  the  Departamento,  as  this  division  is  named  in  Peru ;  its  duties 
are  to  attend  to  the  service  of  public  works,  public  instruction,  and  works  of  the  benevolent 
societies,  and  to  revise  the  acts  of  the  municipal  boards.  The  members  of  the  depart- 
mental boards  are  delegates  elected  by  the  provincial  councils,  as  the  municipal  boards  of 
provinces  are  called;  the  municipal  boards  of  the  districts  into  which  the  provinces  are 
subdivided  are  known  as  district  councils.  The  provincial  council  is  composed  of  citizens 
elected  by  the  people,  foreigners  having  the  right  to  vote  and  being  eligible  for  election; 
from  among  its  members  are  chosen  the  mayor,  vice-mayor,  two  recorders  who  administer 
the  finances  of  the  municipality,  and  a  number  of  inspectors  who  superintend  its  various 
branches  of  public  service.  All  these  posts  are  unsalaried.  The  district  council  is  composed 
of  the  mayor,  or  alcalde,  two  aldermen  elected  by  the  people,  and  two  recorders  appointed 
by  the  provincial  council.  The  duties  of  both  the  provincial  and  district  councils  are  to 
govern  the  towns  of  their  jurisdiction  as  regards  sanitation,  hygiene,  the  supply  of  water  and 
lighting,  the  superintendence  of  public  roads,  markets,  street  cars  and  other  conveyances, 


THE  MILITARY  SCHOOL,  CHORILLOS. 


public  amusements,  etc. ;  they  also  have  charge  of  the  civil  register  and  statistics.     Primary 
instruction  and  the  police  service  are  not  under  the  direction  of  the  municipal  boards,  but 


THE  POLITICAL  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  REPUBLIC 


i8i 


under  the  supreme  government.  The  revenues  of  provincial  and  district  councils  are 
derived  from  municipal  properties,  and  chiefly  from  local  taxes  called  arbitrius,  which  are 
imposed  with  the  approval  of  the 
supreme  government.  The  proceed- 
ings of  the  district  councils  are  re- 
vised by  the  provincial  councils, 
whose  acts  are,  in  turn,  subject  to 
revision  by  the  departmental  boards. 

Politically,  the  republic  is  divided 
into  twenty-two  departments,  two 
of  which,  Moquegua  and  Tumbes, 
known  as  littoral  provinces,  consist 
each  of  a  single  province  only.  The 
departments  are  subject  to  the  author- 
ity of  a  prefect,  who  is  appointed  by 
the  executive,  receiving  his  instruc- 
tions from  the  minister  of  govern- 
ment. The  departments  are  sub- 
divided into  one  hundred  and  one 
provinces,  governed  by  sub-prefects, 
and  the  provinces  are  again  sub- 
divided into  eight  hundred  and  one 
districts,  under  the  authority  of  gov- 
ernors. By  this  arrangement  the 
supreme  government  maintains  im- 
mediate control  of  the  national  inter- 
ests in  every  part  of  the  republic,  the 
prefects,  sub-prefects,  and  governors 
having  direct  supervision  of  primary 

instruction  and  the  police  service  within  their  respective  jurisdictions.  The  recent  reorgani- 
zation of  the  police  system  has  brought  notable  improvements  into  the  service,  which  is 
conducted  in  conformity  with  modern  regulations. 

The  ecclesiastical  authority  is  exercised  in  accordance  with  the  national  constitution,  which 
states  that  Roman  Catholicism  is  the  established  religion,  freedom  of  worship  being  permitted 
to  non-Catholics.  The  church  territory  is  divided  into  nine  dioceses :  the  archbishopric  of 
Lima,  and  the  bishoprics  of  Trujillo,  Chachapoyas,  Huaraz,  Huanuco,  Ayacucho,  Cuzco,  Puno, 
and  Arequipa.  These  are  again  divided  into  curacies,  of  which  Lima  has  sixty-six,  Trujillo 
one  hundred  and  three,  Chachapoyas  forty-three,  Huaraz  forty-seven,  Huanuco  fifty-seven, 
Ayacucho  ninety-two,  Cuzco  eighty-two,  Puno  fifty-two,  and  Arequipa  seventy-one,  making 
in  all  six  hundred  and  thirteen,  in  charge  of  curate-vicars,  who  receive  their  instructions 


DR.  SOLON   POLO.  MINISTER  OF  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS  IN   PRESIDENT 
JOSE   PARDO'S  CABINET. 


1 82 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE^V  PERU 


from  the  bishops  of  the  diocese  to  which  they  are  appointed.  Every  village  in  the  republic 
has  its  church  or  chapel  and  religious  instruction  is  given  to  every  citizen,  the  churches 
being  open  at  all  hours  of  the  day  to  admit  anyone  who  wishes  to  consecrate  a  few 
moments  to  devotions. 

The  civil  rights  of  all  persons  are  respected  in  Peru  without  distinction  of  nationality, 
and  all  who  reside  in  the  country  are  equally  protected  by  its  laws.  Any  foreigner  may 
acquire  property  in  Peru  and  dispose  of  it  at  will ;  in  general,  everything  concerning  landed 
property  is  amply  guaranteed,  by  the  Peruvian  laws.  The  Thirty-second  Article  says:  "The 
laws  protect  and  oblige  all  persons  equally;  and  the  civil  rights  are  independent  of  the  quality 
of  the  citizen."  The  Twenty-eighth  Article  declares  that  "  every  foreigner  can  acquire,  in 
accordance  with  the  laws,  landed  property  in  the  republic,  possessing  in  everything  relating 

to  that  property  the  same  obligations 
and  privileges  as  a  Peruvian."  Special 
dispositions  expressly  authorize  for- 
eigners to  denounce  mines  and  obtain 
concessions  of  mountain  and  rubber 
lands  on  the  same  conditions  as  Peru- 
vians, in  the  exercise  of  any  trade, 
profession  or  industry  of  any  kind, 
absolute  freedom  is  permitted  to  native 
and  foreigner  alike,  so  long  as  it  is  not 
opposed  to  morality,  health  or  public 
security.  Foreigners  desiring  to  prac- 
tise medicine,  law,  or  engineering  are 
required  to  prove  their  ability  by 
presenting  their  title  received  from  a 
university,  and  by  submitting  to  the 
prescribed  examination.  In  order  to 
guarantee  the  titles  of  land  owners,  a 
registry  office  has  been  recently  estab- 
lished, in  which  is  inscribed  the  name 
of  the  actual  owner,  the  manner  in 
which  the  property  was  acquired,  the 
incumbrances  attaching  to  its  purchase, 
if  any,  and  any  conditions  which  limit 
the  possessor's  right  to  dispose  of  it. 
The  Civil  Code  recognizes  the  right  of 
a  foreigner  to  dispose  of  his  property  by  will,  and,  in  case  of  his  dying  without  having  made  a 
will,  and  without  leaving  immediate  heirs,  it  provides  for  placing  the  property  in  security, 
under  the  direction  of  the  consular  representative  of  the  nation  to  which  the  deceased 


DR.  CARLOS  WASHBURN,  PRESIDENT  OF   DR.   PARDO'S  CABINET. 


THE  POLITICAL  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  REPUBLIC 


.8j 


belonged ;  an  inventory  is  taken  and  the  inheritance  liquidated,  so  that  claims  against  it  may 
be  presented  in  due  form,  after  the  settlement  of  which  the  balance  is  handed  over  to  the 
heirs  legally  entitled  to  receive  it.    As  regards  the  personal  liberty  of  foreigners  as  well  as 


?  T  T  t  T  T 

'y^MMHll|^^■*|f^^^^^^^l'^^g^^yJ^J^yMr7lll^^|^^u>)UHr'|^llulUlllll*'ll 


THH    MINT,   LIMA. 


Peruvians,  the  Eighteenth  Article  of  the  Constitution  expressly  says  that  no  one  can  be 
arrested  without  a  written  order  from  a  competent  judge,  or  from  the  authorities  charged 
with  the  preservation  of  public  order,  except  in  cases  of  flagrante  delicto,  and  in  any  case  the 
person  arrested  must  be  brought  before  the  judge  of  the  case  within  twenty-four  hours 
afterward.  The  law  of  habeas  corpus  is  recognized,  by  which  anyone  detained  more  than 
twenty-four  hours  without  having  his  case  submitted  to  the  proper  authorities  may  present 
himself,  or  be  represented  by  a  proxy,  before  the  judge  with  a  complaint,  and  the  judge  is 
bound  to  investigate  the  arrest  and  to  decree  the  liberty  of  the  detained  person  in  case  no 
legal  reason  for  liis  further  detention  can  be  established. 

Naturalized  foreigners  enjoy  the  rights  and  are  subject  to  the  obligations  imposed  upon 
Peruvians,  except  that  they  cannot  be  elected  to  the  presidency  of  the  republic,  or  be 
ministers  of  State,  Senators,  deputies,  or  judicial  authorities,  though  they  may  be  appointed 
justices  of  the  peace.  The  children  of  foreigners  are,  if  born  in  the  country,  Peruvians  by 
birth,  provided  their  names  be  inscribed  in  the  Civil  Register.    A  Peruvian  woman  follo\vs 


1 84 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEPV  PERU 


the  nationality  of  her  husband,  though,  should  she  become  a  widow,  she  again  assumes  the 
nationality  of  her  birth.  It  is  important  for  foreigners  who  contemplate  living  in  Peru  to 
know  that  civil  marriage  is  established  for  'non-Catholics,  who  may  celebrate  the  marriage 
ceremony  before  the  mayor  of  the  place  in  which  either  of  the  contracting  parties  resides,  in 
the  presence  of  two  witnesses  who  must  be  residents  of  the  same  locality,  it  is  necessary 
only  that  a  declaration  be  made  before  the  mayor  that  they  do  not  belong  to  the  Catholic 
community,  or  that  they  have  separated  from  it.  It  is  obligatory  that  the  Act  of  Marriage 
shall  be  inscribed  in  the  Civil  Register  within  eight  days  after  the  ceremony,  even  in  the  case 
of  those  who  are  married  according  to  the  religion  of  the  country.  The  divorce  court  is 
unknown  in  Peru,  the  only  legal  separation  being  one  which  dissolves  the  union  only  so  far 
as  regards  the  property,  the  marriage  tie  remaining  in  force.  In  the  case  of  non-Catholics, 
the  civil  courts  decide  as  to  the  judicial  separation  or  nullity  of  the  marriage,  while,  for 
Catholics,  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  dispose  of  the  matter  in  accordance  with  the  ruling 
of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

The  new  laws  that  have  been  introduced  from  time  to  time  in  the  national  code  show 
a  spirit  of  fraternity  in  the  Peruvian  character  which  is  particularly  promising  for  the 
development  of  friendly  foreign  relations.  In  the  liberal  mining  laws,  the  enterprising 
prospector  from  abroad  finds  every  facility  to  aid  him  in  his  ambitious  undertakings;  and 
In  the  laws  governing  colonization,  the  establishment  of  industries,  or  any  foreign  enterprise, 
the  conditions  are  as  favorable  as  a  progressive  and  far-seeing  policy  could  make  them. 
A  description  of  this  richly  dowered  country  will  show  that  its  society,  its  intellectual  and 
benevolent  institutions,  its  industries  and  its  growing  trade,  are  the  outward  expression  of  a 
people's  faith  in  their  political  security  and  the  wisdom  of  their  laws. 


REVIEW   OF  ARTILLERY  TROOPS,  LIMA. 


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CHAPTER  XII 


THE   CITY   OF   THE   KINGS  AND   ITS   BEAUTIFUL   SUBURBS 


"X^niH  an  inheritance  of  legend,  romance, 
"  '  and  wealth  that  gives  its  history 
extraordinary  charm,  Lima,  "The  Thrice- 
crowned  City,"  enjoys  the  distinction  of 
being  the  most  renowned  capital  of  Spanish 
America.  For  nearly  three  hundred  years  it 
was  the  "second  metropolis"  of  the  vast 
Spanish  empire  on  two  continents,  and  the 
centre  of  a  viceregal  court  whose  splendor 
and  gayety  vied  with  that  of  royalty  itself. 
The  legend  of  Rimac  makes  the  site  of  this 
beautiful  city  the  ancient  abode  of  a  revered 
pre-Incaic  oracle;  and  the  imagination  can 
easily  picture  scenes  of  antiquity  in  the  valley 
"that  speaks,"  when  from  all  parts  of  the 
kingdom  the  faithful  came  to  make  their 
vows  and  to  receive  the  word  of  the  Amer- 
ican Delphi,  ages  before  Pizarro  laid  the 
foundations  for  the  City  of  the  Kings.  As 
frequently  occurred  in  Peru,  the  native  title 
superseded  the  Spanish  one,  and  "Lima," 

which  is  a  corruption  of  "  Rimac,"  is  now  the  name  universally  given  to  the  capital  that  was 

more  pompously  christened  "  La  Ciudad  de  los  Reyes,"  the  arms  being  three  gold  crowns 

on  an  azure  field  with  the  Star  of  the  East  above. 

Lima  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rimac  River  in  a  broad  and  fertile  plain,  which 

slopes  gently  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  a  few  miles  away.    The  great  chain  of  the  Andes  passes 

within  fifty  miles  of  the  city ;  and  spurs  from  this  majestic  range  approach  close  to  its  gates, 

187 


ENTRANCE  TO   MUNICIPAL   PARK. 


i88  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

forming  an  amphitheatre  within  which  the  capital  lies,  wearing  a  purple  crown  at  dawn 
when  the  sun  is  hidden  behind  its  hills,  and  a  golden  aureole  at  eventide  when  the  light 
fades  into  the  sea.  The  city  forms  a  triangle,  of  which  the  longest  side  rests  on  the  River 
Rimac;  the  streets  are  marked  out  in  a  straight  line  and  run  parallel  from  northeast  and 
northwest,  crossing  at  right  angles,  with  open  squares,  or  plazas,  at  intervals,  beautified 
with  monuments,  fountains,  and  shrubbery.  The  Plaza  Mayor,  or  principal  square  of  Lima, 
is  about  five  hundred  feet  above  sea  level,  the  mountains  behind  the  city  reaching  an 
altitude  of  from  one  thousand  to  three  thousand  feet;  the  climate  is  mild,  rain  seldom  falls, 
and  the  surrounding  hills  keep  off  northerly  and  easterly  winds,  while  cool  breezes  from 
the  Pacific  temper  the  heat  of  the  tropics. 

In  appearance  and  style,  the  Lima  of  the  viceroyalty  has  been  compared  with  Seville, 
except  that  its  streets  were  broader  and  straighter  than  those  of  the  Andalusian  metropolis, 
and  showed  signs  of  greater  activity.  As  the  capital  of  the  republic,  the  city  has  grown 
larger,  more  modern  in  appearance,  and  more  western  in  atmosphere;  yet  there  is  still 
much  of  the  charm  of  the  past  in  the  massive  street  doors,  barred  windows  and  Moorish 
balconies,  or  miradores,  some  of  them  built  of  mahogany  and  carved  in  handsome  designs. 
The  portales,  arcades  that  extend  along  the  sides  of  the  plazas,  forming  a  sheltered,  walk  in 
front  of  the  shops,  and  usually  thronged  with  people,  are  a  survival  of  colonial  architecture. 
The  pld  churches  and  convents  retain  the  attractiveness  of  venerable  edifices  which  have 
served  as  places  of  devotion  for  many  generations.  All  these  features  are  too  charming  to 
be  dispensed  with,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  necessities  of  modern  improvement  will 
not  soon  demand  their  destruction. 

What  scenes  are  suggested  by  the  beautiful  Plaza  Mayor!  On  the  north  side  stands 
the  government  palace,  once  the  palace  of  the  viceroys,  whose  court  was  the  talk  of  two 
continents  during  the  rule  of  the  Marquis  de  Cafiete,  the  Duke  de  Palata,  and  the  dilettante 
Prince  de  Esquilache;  in  its  spacious  salons  gay  festivals  were  celebrated  by  the  Viceroy 
Amat  and  his  courtiers,  A  short  distance  away  is  the  site  of  the  assassination  of  Pizarro ; 
and,  overlooking  the  plaza,  from  the  eastern  side,  the  great  cathedral  turns  one's  thoughts 
back  to  those  early  days  when  its  first  foundations  were  laid  by  the  Conqueror,  whose 
remains  it  shelters.  The  archbishop's  palace  adjoins  the  cathedral.  On  the  western  side  of 
the  plaza  stands  the  city  hall,  both  the  western  and  southern  sides  being  faced  by  handsome 
portales,  above  which  are  the  balconies  of  the  principal  social  clubs. 

The  brilliant  functions  of  the  viceroy's  court,  that  illuminated  the  palace  on  the  north 
side  of  the  plaza  a  century  ago,  could  hardly  have  been  more  elaborate  or  more  elegant  than 
the  entertainments  which  are  given  to-day  in  the  handsome  quarters  of  the  Union  Club, 
overlooking  the  plaza  from  the  opposite  side,  or  in  the  Nacional  Club,  a  few  blocks  away. 
The  balls  and  banquets  held  by  these  societies  in  honor  of  distinguished  visitors  are 
memorable  affairs:  as  when  Mr.  Root  was  entertained  with  true  Peruvian  hospitality  in 
a  series  of  brilliant  social  events  under  their  auspices.  The  beautiful  bronze  fountain,  more 
than  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  old,  which  forms  the  centre-piece  of  the  great  plaza,  is  an 


THE  CITY  OF  THE  KINGS  AND  ITS  BEAUTIFUL  SUBURBS 


189 


ornament  of  rare  value.  A  short  distance  from  the  square  is  located  the  Plaza  de  la  Inqui- 
sicion,  where,  during  the  viceroyalty,  the  tribunals  of  the  Inquisition  were  held.  The 
building  in  which  the  Holy  Office  had  its  court  is  now  the  Senate  Chamber  of  the  republic. 
The  interior  of  this  edifice  possesses  peculiar  interest.  The  ceiling  is  of  carved  mahogany, 
a  magnificent  example  of  workmanship;  the  mahogany  table  used  to-day  by  the  honorable 
Senate  when  writing  the  laws  that  govern  a  free  people  is  the  same  on  which  the  death 
warrant  was  signed  in  the  tyrannous  period  of  the  auto  de  fe.  In  the  centre  of  this  plaza 
stands  an  equestrian  statue  erected  to  immortalize  the  hero  of  the  Independence,  Simon 


THE   NATIONAL   MUSEUM,  LIMA. 


Bolivar.    The  statue,  superbly  sculptured,  is  of  bronze,  and  rests  on  a  pedestal  of  white 
marble,  with  bas-reliefs  on  the  sides,  representing  the  battles  of  Junin  and  Ayacucho. 

Lima  has  not  been  forgetful  of  the  heroes  of  her  liberty.  In  the  beautiful  Plaza  de  la 
Exposicion,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Paseo  Colon,  a  handsome  marble  column  stands  to  honor 
the  memory  of  the  other  Liberator,  General  San  Martin.  It  was  presented  to  the  city  of 
Lima  by  a  patriotic  Peruvian,  Colonel  Lorenzo  Perez  Roca.  The  lower  terminus  of  the 
Paseo  Colon,  where  Lima's  fashionable  driveway  widens  at  the  converging  of  six  beautiful 
avenues,  is  marked  by  a  spacious  circle,  that  provides  an  imposing  site  for  one  of  the  most 
notable  monuments  in  South  America,  erected  recently  to  commemorate  the  sacrifice  of  the 


igo 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEH^  PERU 


glorious  hero,  Colonel  Bolognesi,  on  the  heights  of  Arica,  where,  having  given  his  answer 
when  asked  to  surrender — "  Not  till  I  have  burned  my  last  cartridge ! " — he  fell  under  the 


THE   MUNICIPAL   INSTITUTE  OF   HYGIENE. 


enemy's  fire.  The  monument  is  the  work  of  the  Spanish  sculptor,  Querol.  It  rests  on 
steps  of  granite,  the  base  being  a  granite  block,  supporting  a  column  of  white  marble. 
Around  the  base  are  allegorical  scenes,  and  the  capital  is  also  artistically  finished  in 
allegorical  design.  The  statue  which  surmounts  the  column  represents  the  hero  in  the  act 
of  falling,  mortally  wounded,  with  his  country's  flag  held  close  to  his  heart.  Another 
handsome  monument  in  the  Paseo  Colon  is  dedicated  to  Christopher  Columbus,  for  whom 
the  driveway  is  named,  it  is  of  white  marble,  and  was  designed  by  the  Italian  sculptor, 
Salvatore  Revellipthe  same  model  having  been  used  for  the  monument  in  the  port  of 
Colon,  Panama.  On  the  road  to  Callao,  a  magnificent  column  of  Carrara  marble,  seventy- 
five  feet  high,  and  crowned  by  a  statue  of  Victory,  commemorates  the  successful  defence 
of  the  port  of  Callao  against  the  Spaniards  on  the  2d  of  May,  1866. 

The  dividing  line  between  the  Lima  of  the  viceroyalty  and  the  Lima  of  the  republic  is 
nowhere  more  evident  than  in  the  appearance  of  the  city's  popular  driveways  and  prome- 
nades. The  Paseo  Colon  is  the  modern  fashionable  residence  quarter,  and  the  favorite 
resort  for  the  best  society  of  Lima  on  the  afternoons  of  the  Corso.     It  is  about  half  a  mile 


THE  CITY  OF  THE  KINGS  AND  ITS  BEAUTIFUL  SUBURBS 


191 


long  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  wide,  extending  from  the  Plaza  de  la  Exposicion  to  the 
Plaza  Bolognesi.  Along  the  middle  of  the  driveway,  from  one  end  to  the  other,  runs  a 
garden  bordered  with  trees,  flowers,  and  shrubs,  divided  at  intervals  by  monuments,  pillars, 
and  fountains,  and  overarched  throughout  by  artistically  arranged  wires  for  electric  lights; 
at  night  when  these  successive  arches  are  illuminated,  the  Paseo  is  a  brilliant  scene, 
presenting  an  extraordinary  effect.  Stone  pavements  extend  along  each  side  of  the  central 
garden,  for  tiie  use  of  foot  passengers;  and  the  broad  avenue,  with  its  pleasant  driveway 
thus  divided,  is  adorned  by  a  double  line  of  handsome  residences  that  overlook  it  from 
both  sides.  Adjoining  the  Plaza  de  la  Exposicion,  at  the  head  of  the  Paseo,  is  the  large  and 
beautiful  Exposition  Park,  named  in  commemoration  of  the  General  Exposition  of  1870, 
which  took  place  in  these  grounds.  The  park  covers  thirty  acres,  and  is  laid  out  in  shaded 
walks,  artificial  lakes,  grottoes,  gardens,  and  conservatories,  in  which  all  kinds  of  tropical 
and  sub-tropical  plants  and  flowers  are  to  be  seen,  including  choice  Peruvian  orchids. 


PLAZUELA   DE   LA   RECOLETA. 


A  circle  of  palm  trees  encloses  a  pretty  kiosk,  always  a  favorite  retreat,  and  several  edifices 
in  various  styles  of  architecture  ornament  the  grounds.    The  Exposition  Palace  stands  at 


192 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


the  entrance  to  the  park,  and  is  one  of  the  handsomest  buildings  in  Lima.     Its  lower  floor 
is  used  for  balls,  concerts,  and  lectures,  the  floor  above  being  occupied  by  the  National 

Museum,  the  Historical  Institute,  and  the 
Athenaeum  of  Lima.  It  faces  the  Paseo 
Colon,  directly  opposite  to  another  hand- 
some edifice,  the  Municipal  Institute  of 
Hygiene. 

The  Historical  Institute  is  one  of  the 
most  important  scientific  institutions  of 
Peru,  and  one  destined  to  occupy  a  high 
place  among  the  societies  of  America.  Its 
purpose  is  to  cultivate  and  advance  the 
study  of  national  history,  including  all  that 
pertains  to  the  ethnology  and  archaeology 
of  the  country.  This  embraces  a  wide  field 
and  opens  up  illimitable  prospects  of  inves- 
tigation. The  institute  has  charge  of  the 
National  Museum,  wliich  is  the  repository 
for  collections  of  objects  of  historical  value 
and  interest.  The  work  of  collecting,  de- 
ciphering, arranging,  annotating,  and  pub- 
lishing documents  relating  to  the  national 
history,  as  well  as  the  responsibility  of 
guarding  and  preserving  the  national  monu- 
ments of  archaeological  and  artistic  value,  is 
under  the  direction  of  the  institute,  which 
was  created  by  decree  of  the  government 
of  Peru  on  the  i8th  of  February,  190^. 
Dr.  Max  Uhle  has  charge  of  the  prehistoric 
department  of  the  museum,  a  section  full  of 
interest  for  those  who  have  a  curiosity  to  see  the  wonderful  potteries,  textiles,  and  mummies 
that  have  been  taken  from  Peruvian  burial  mounds.  Although  the  work  of  classifying  and 
arranging  these  relics  of  antiquity  was  begun  only  a  little  more  than  a  year  ago,  the  exhibit 
is  already  assuming  great  importance,  and  it  will  undoubtedly  be  among  the  famous  world 
collections  one  of  these  days.  The  collection  of  objects  of  the  colonial  and  the  republican 
periods  is  of  important  historical  interest.  Here  may  be  seen  curious  relics  of  the  time  of 
the  conquest,  even  the  first  baptismal  font  used  in  Lima,  which  was  presented  to  the  museum 
by  the  church  of  Santo  Domingo.  Many  and  varied  articles  belonging  to  the  period  of  the 
viceroyalty  have  been  collected,  among  others,  the  wooden  cross  that  was  carried  at  the  head 
of  the  procession  in  the  auto  de  f'e  as  early  as  the  sixteenth  century;  and  the  splendid 


STATUE  OF  COLUMBUS  IN  THE   PASEO  COLON. 


THE  CITY  OF  THE  KINGS  AND  ITS  BEAUTIFUL  SUBURBS 


19J 


coach,  red  and  gold,  with  the  Torre-Tagle  arms  emblazoned  on  its  panels,  in  which  the 
great  marquis  made  his  magnificent  progresses  across  the  country,  in  royal  style,  with 
outriders  and  lackeys  in  attendance.  There  are  trophies  of  tiie  war  of  independence, 
among  them  Bolivar's  spurs  and  the  bed  on  which  General  Sucre  is  said  to  have  slept  the 
night  before  Ayacucho;  and  among  tlie  precious  treasures  of  more  recent  days  are 
preserved  the  swords  of  Colonel  Bolognesi,  the  cap  and  epaulettes  of  Admiral  Grau,  a 
Chilean  flag  and  other  souvenirs  of  the  war  of  the  Pacific.  Paintings  of  historical  scenes 
and  portraits  of  great  men  adorn  the  walls. 

Leaving  the  modern  Paseo  Colon  and  Exposition  Park,  and  crossing  the  Rimac,  one  is 
again  in  the  old  city  of  the  viceroys,  the  famous  Avenida  de  Acho  extending  along  the  river 
bank  from  the  ancient  stone  bridge,  built  in  colonial  days,  to  the  modern  structure  called 
the  Balta  Bridge,  in  honor  of  a  former  president  of  the  republic.  This  avenue,  the 
fashionable  promenade  of  the  capital  up  to  half  a  century  ago,  is  divided  into  three  road- 
ways, the  central  one,  bordered  with  tall  poplars,  being  used  for  riding  and  driving,  while 
those  on  each  side  are  reserved  as  walks.  It  is  popular  on  holidays  and  is  thronged  on  the 
days  of  the  bull  fights.  Of  equal  interest,  historically,  is  ihejaniin  de  los  Descal^os  ("Garden 
of  the  Barefooted  Friars"),  which  is  situated  a  short  distance  beyond  the  Avenida  de  Acho, 
and  just  at  the  foot  of  the  Cerro  de  San  Cristobal,  a  mountain  that  rises  close  behind  the 
city.  The  garden  of  the  Descalzos  extends  along  an  avenue  more  than  half  a  mile  in  length, 
ornamented  by  twelve  statues  that  represent  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  and  it  is  beautified 
throughout  its  length  by 
tropical  trees  and  plants, 
while  at  intervals  are 
placed  handsome  urns 
and  marble  benches.  An 
iron  railing,  six  feet  high, 
surrounds  the  garden, 
and  a  beautiful  fountain 
at  its  terminus  completes 
the  harmony  of  the  pic- 
ture, which  is  enhanced 
by  the  overshadowing 
Cerro,  and  the  ancient 
church  and  convent  of 
Barefooted  Friars,  just 
below. 

With   the   destruc- 
tion, a  few  years  ago,  of 

the  walls  that  formerly  surrounded  the  city,  plans  for  its  beautification  were  initiated  on  an 
extensive  scale ;  the  Boulevard  Bolognesi,  the  Boulevard  Grau  and  other  broad  paseos  were 


KIOSK  OF   PALMS.  EXPOSITION  PARK. 


194 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


laid  out,  forming  an  almost  uninterrupted  driveway  from  the  river  around  the  city's  southern 
limits  to  the  river  again.    The  Boulevard  Grau  passes  the  Botanical  Garden,  in  which  are 

collected  speci- 
mens of  tropical 
and  semi-tropical 
flora  of  every 
variety.  Stately 
palms  guard  the 
entrance  to  the 
garden,  and  bor- 
dering its  shady 
walks  are  beau- 
tiful plants  and 
flowers  in  gor- 
geous colors  and 
of  wonderful 
growth.  The 
Chiisia,  a  remark- 
able tree  of  which 
the  fruit  bursts 
open  when  ripe, 
showing  a  pretty 
flower  with  scar- 
letseeds,isamong 
the  interesting 
arboreal  speci- 
mens seen  here. 
Beautiful 
paseos  also  lead 
from  Lima  to  its 
suburban  watering  places,  the  Avenida  de  Magcialena  being  one  of  the  most  picturesque  of 
these  shady  drives.  Another  popular  highway  is  the  road  from  Lima  to  Callao,  along  which 
the  viceroys  used  to  make  their  splendid  processions  in  former  days.  It  is  lined  part  of  the 
way  with  shade  trees  and  presents  an  animated  spectacle  on  feast  days  and  holidays,  though 
it  is  not  so  generally  used  since  the  advent  of  the  railway,  as  that  service  has  converted  into  a 
twenty  minutes'  trip  what  was  formerly  a  journey  of  hours.  It  is  the  chosen  route  for  farmers 
and  fruitsellers  on  their  way  to  market,  and  is  thronged  in  the  early  morning  hours  by  these 
picturesque  venders,  usually  on  donkeys,  which  bear  the  products  in  huge  panniers  slung  at 
each  side.  Lima  has  four  market  places,  the  Mercado  Concepcion  being  the  largest  and  most 
important;  it  occupies  an  entire  block  and  has  a  spacious  interior,  two  stories  in  height. 


t:^. 


PAVILION   IN  EXPOSITION   PARK. 


THE  CITY  OF  THE  KINGS  AND  ITS  BEAUTIFUL  SUBURBS 


'9^ 


admitting  of  the  best  ventilation.     It  is  considered  one  of  tlie  largest  in  South  America,  both 
as  regards  the  edifice  and  the  abundance  of  the  market  supply. 

The  scene  at  the  market  is  bright  and  entertaining,  as  it  is  the  favorite  meeting  place 
for  gossip  among  the  market  women,  and  one  may  hear  many  a  clever  bit  of  repartee 
between  the  bargaining  purchaser  and  the  nonchalant  vender.  Local  color  is  vivid  in  the 
Mercado  Concepcion,  as  it  is  wherever  there  are  popular  gatherings  of  the  mestizo  and 
the  Indian,  who  give  the  dominant  note;  the  customs  of  the  Spanish-American  of  to-day 
differ  little  from  those  of  North  America,  whatever  differences  exist  being  due  to  climate 
and  temperament  rather  than  to  traditions.  The  climate  of  Lima  is  very  equable,  the 
thermometer  seldom  rising  above  seventy  degrees  or  going  below  sixty  degrees  Fahren- 
heit, in  the  shade,  in  winter,  from  May  to  November,  the  garfui,  a  damp  fog,  prevails, 
arriving  with  the  morning  breeze,  which  blows  from  the  westward,  but  passing  away 
when  the  sun  is  high,  except 
on  cloudy  days. 

As  the  capital  of  the  re- 
public, Lima  is  the  chief  centre 
of  political  as  well  as  social 
progress.  The  president  of  the 
republic,  his  ministers,  and  the 
high  officials  of  the  various 
administrative  offices  reside  in 
Lima,  in  which  are  located  the 
national  treasury,  the  mint,  and 
the  post  office.  The  mint  is  an 
interesting  institution,  and  vis- 
itors find  its  archives  both  in- 
structive and  entertaining.  The 
first  money  coined  in  Lima  con- 
sisted of  silver  disks,  marked  on 
both  sides  with  a  cross  made 
by  means  of  a  hammer;  later, 
it  was  stamped  with  the  royal 
arms  on  one  side  and  the  bust 
of  the  reigning  monarch  on  the 
other.  Since  the  inauguration  of 
the  republic,  the  mint  has  been 
entirely  reorganized,  and  pro- 
vided with  modern  machinery, 

constructed  in  England.     It  occupies  the  same  site  as  the  original  building,  erected  in  1 5'6^. 
The  records  of  the  establishment  show  that  four  hundred  million  silver  coins  have  been 


CHURCH   OF  SANTO   DOMINGO. 


196 


THE  OLD  Al^D   THE  NEIV  PERU 


turned  out  in  that  time,  besides  gold  pieces.     At  present  both  gold  and  silver  money  is 
coined,  the  gold  pieces  being  the  libra  and  the  media  libra  (pound  and  half  pound),  equivalent 

to  the  English  sovereign  and  the 
half  sovereign;  the  silver  coins 
are  the  sol,  equivalent  to  half  a 
dollar  gold,  and  the  smaller  pieces, 
the  one-half  sol,  the  one-fifth 
sol,  the  real  (worth  five  cents, 
gold),  and  the  one-half  real. 
Copper  coins  are  used,  equiva- 
lent in  value  to  the  English  half- 
penny and  farthing.  The  Lima 
Mint  is  to-day  one  of  the  best 
establishments  of  its  kind  in 
South  America. 

Lima  is  the  seat  of  Con- 
gress, of  the  Supreme  Court, 
and  of  the  general  staff  of  the 
army,  the  buildings  in  which 
these  branches  of  the  govern- 
ment are  conducted  belonging, 
not  to  the  municipality,  but  to 
the  nation.  The  construction  of 
a  new  house  of  Congress  is  now 
occupying  the  attention  of  the 
administration.  The  metropoli- 
tan dignitaries  of  the  Church 
also  reside  in  Lima,  His  Grace 
Archbishop  Garcia  Naranjo,  having  his  palace  next  to  the  Cathedral.  As  Lima  is  not 
only  the  national  capital  but  also  the  capital  of  a  department  and  of  a  judicial  district, 
it  is  the  residence  of  the  prefect  and  the  seat  of  the  superior  courts.  It  is,  further- 
more, the  chief  city  of  the  province  of  Lima  and  the  headquarters  of  the  sub-prefect, 
as  well  as  of  the  staff  of  the  six  police  districts  into  which  that  service  is  divided. 
The  provincial  council,  or  municipality,  with  all  its  dependencies,  constitutes  the  local 
government. 

During  the  administration  of  the  present  mayor  of  Lima,  Dr.  Federico  Elguera,  who 
was  recently  reelected  for  the  sixth  time,  in  token  of  the  appreciation  of  the  citizens  for  his 
good  government,  the  municipal  improvements  have  been  greater  and  more  generally 
satisfactory  than  ever  before;  and  each  year  finds  the  city  more  modern  in  appearance, 
with  better  sanitary  conditions,  and  added  conveniences  of  transportation.    The  electric 


SAN   PEDRO,  THE   FASHIONABLE   CHURCH   OF   LIMA. 


THE  CITY  OF  THE  KINGS  AND  ITS  BEAUTIFUL  SUBURBS 


197 


street  car  routes  now  cover  the  city  very  thoroughly  and  connect  it  with  the  suburbs  by 
means  of  a  rapid  and  commodious  service.  Electricity  is  also  used  for  lighting,  the  system 
being  modern  and  convenient.  As  a  metropolis,  Lima  provides  the  usual  comforts  of  city 
life,  in  good  clubs  and  hotels;  the  cab  service  is  excellent,  the  telephone  is  found  in  all 
public  buildings  and  residences:  theatres  are  open  all  the  year,  and  a  handsome  new 
national  theatre  is  now  under  construction. 

Lima  has  a  population  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  inhabitants.  The  general 
character  of  the  masses  is  peaceable  and  the  percentage  of  crime  is  not  large.  The 
police  service  has  been  greatly  improved  during  the  present  administration,  the  mounted 
police  being  recruited  and  organized  by  the  army  authorities,  though  serving  under  the 
orders  of  the  chief  of  police,  who  has  charge  of  the  entire  force.  The  penitentiary  of  Lima, 
the  first  of  its  class  to  be  built  in  America,  is  a  spacious  edifice,  equipped  with  modern 
conveniences,  including  a  complete  system  of  electric  lighting;  a  good  library  was  recently 
installed  for  the  use  and  education  of  the  inmates.  For  protection  against  fires,  Lima 
has  a  volunteer  brigade,  the  companies  of  which  are  maintained  by  personal  subscription. 
There  are  about  five  hundred  volunteer  firemen  in  the  capital,  divided  into  companies, 


THE  BALTA   BRIDGE   OVER   THE   RIMAC   RIVER. 


which,  by  their  names,  reveal  the  cosmopolitan  character  of  this  service.  In  addition  to 
the  "  Lima,"  "  Salvadora,"  and  "Cosmopolita"  companies,  the  brigade  includes  also  the 
"  Roma,"  "  Francia,"  "  Victoria,"  and  others. 


198 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


Few  capitals  can  boast  of  more  delightful  suburban  resorts  than  those  which  sur- 
round the  Peruvian  capital,  making  it  possible  for  one  to  live  in  a  perennial  paradise. 
In  the  mountains,  a  few  leagues  inland,  is  the  ideal  climate  of  an  altitude  reaching  from 


PASEO   COLON-THE    FAVORITE    DRIVEWAY   OF    LIMA. 


five  thousand  to  eight  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  and  tempered  by  its  proximity 
to  the  equator,  so  that,  in  winter,  it  is  the  most  desirable  place  of  residence  imaginable. 
Chosica  and  Matucana  are  destined  to  be  renowned  as  popular  mountain  resorts  ere 
very  long.  Chosica  is  situated  in  the  province  of  Lima,  on  the  line  of  the  Oroya  railway, 
two  hours'  journey  by  train  from  the  capital.  Many  business  men  take  their  families  to  this 
resort,  and  find  it  very  convenient  to  reach  their  offices  in  town  daily,  as  the  railway  service 
is  arranged  to  accommodate  this  demand.  Matucana  stands  at  a  much  higher  elevation, 
about  eight  thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  and  is  a  couple  of  hours'  ride  beyond  Chosica  on 
the  same  line  of  railway.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Huarochiri,  Department  of 
Lima,  and  is  the  political  centre  of  an  important  district  created  during  the  administration 
of  Bolivar,  who  gave  the  citizens  an  escutcheon  with  the  inscription,  "To  the  constant 
Patriots  of  Huarochiri."  Matucana  is  quite  a  large  town,  and  is  increasing  in  importance  as 
the  surrounding  country  is  more  generally  explored  for  its  mines  and  other  resources. 
Two  trains  daily  each  way  carry  passengers  between  Lima  and  Matucana;  many  travellers 
bound  for  the  sierra  stop  on  their  way  to  enjoy  a  night's  rest  at  this  healthful  resort  before 
beginning  the  sharp  ascent  to  the  summit  of  the  Andean  range.    The  air  is  fresh  and  cool, 


THE  CITY  OF  THE  KINGS  /IND  ITS  BEAUTIFUL  SUBURBS  199 

and  one  rarely  suffers  from  soroche  at  this  altitude,  in  summer,  all  Lima  society  deserts  the 
capital  to  live  at  Chorillos,  Miraflores,  Barranco,  Magdalena,  La  Punta,  Ancon,  or  some  other 
of  the  bathing  resorts  in  its  vicinity. 

Chorillos  is  the  Newport  of  Peru.  Before  the  war  with  Chile  it  was  the  wealthiest 
and  most  frequented  summer  resort  in  all  South  America;  and,  even  though  it  was 
completely  reduced  to  ashes  by  the  invading  armies  in  1881,  it  is  to-day  a  beautiful 
suburb,  having  been  almost  entirely  rebuilt  within  the  past  twenty  years.  The  site  on 
which  Chorillos  is  built  possesses  advantages  that  are  ideal  for  the  purposes  of  a  bathing 
resort.  Surrounding  a  sheltered  cove  that  lies  just  under  the  brow  of  a  mountain  two 
thousand  feet  high,  called  Morro  Solar,  is  an  uneven  cliff,  rising  at  one  point  to  a  height 
of  one  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  and  here  the  city  of  Chorillos  is  situated.  A  beautiful 
terrace  extends  along  the  edge  of  the  cliff,  where  society  gathers  to  enjoy  the  sea  breeze 
and  to  revel  in  the  beauty  of  a  Pacific  sunset,  under  the  warm  skies  of  the  tropics. 

The  descent  to  the  beach  from  the  cliff  is  a  picturesque  and  shaded  pathway,  and 
the  surf  is  particularly  adapted  for  bathing,  being  smooth  and  regular.  The  town  has  a 
population  of  three  thousand,  and  in  summer  the  daily  excursions  from  Lima  bring  many 
times  that  number  to  enjoy  the  baths,  the  music,  dances,  boating,  and  other  amusements. 
The  Casino  of  Chorillos  is  famous  for  its  fashionable  social  affairs,  and  the  Regatta  Club 
usually  provides  entertainments  at  intervals  during  the  summer,  when  Chorillos  Bay  is 
flecked  with  pretty  white  sails,  launches,  and  rowboats.  Large  and  commodious  electric 
cars  run  every  few  minutes  between  Lima  and  Chorillos,  the  line  having  been  recently 
extended  to  reach  another  bathing  resort.  La  Herradura,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Morro 
Solar,  through  which  a  tunnel  has  been  built.  Chorillos,  Barranco,  and  Miraflores  are 
all  connected  with  Lima  by  the  same  system  of  railways.  The  distance  between  these 
resorts  is  very  short  and  a  shaded  driveway  connects  one  with  the  other.  Magdalena 
is  situated  between  Lima  and  Miraflores,  and  is  reached  by  a  separate  car  line;  though 
the  trip  may  also  be  made  by  following  the  beautiful  Avenida  Magdalena,  which  begins 
at  the  foot  of  the  Paseo  Colon,  and  extends  all  the  way  to  Magdalena. 

La  Punta,  "The  Point,"  is  another  very  popular  bathing  resort  of  Lima,  and  it  is 
growing  in  favor  every  year.  It  is  located  on  the  peninsula  which  extends  out  into 
the  sea  at  the  port  of  Callao,  and  is  frequented  by  the  people  of  Callao  as  well  as  those 
of  Lima.  Throngs  of  bathers  arrive  by  the  trains  that  stop  at  La  Punta  every  few  minutes 
during  the  day,  and  in  the  height  of  the  summer  season  additional  cars  are  put  on  to  accom- 
modate the  crowds.  La  Punta  is  located  at  the  extremity  of  a  long  narrow  tongue  of  sandy 
beach,  and  cool  breezes  always  blow  across  it,  refreshing  and  invigorating  after  the  humid 
air  of  the  capital.  Ancon,  with  its  world-renowned  necropolis  of  prehistoric  treasures,  lies 
about  twenty-five  miles  north  of  Lima,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  It  is  quite 
popular  as  a  bathing  resort,  and  is  a  favorite  summer  home  for  families;  its  climate  is  ex- 
tremely healthful,  and  it  is  regarded  as  a  desirable  place  of  residence  most  of  the  year.  The 
dry  atmosphere  and  sandy  soil  are  advantages  always  appreciated  by  invalids  suffering  from 


200 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


I 


pulmonary  affections,  and  they  are  glad  to  enjoy  the  sea  air  without  the  dampness  that  so 
often  prevails  at  seaside  resorts. 

Whether  in  the  charming  capital,  or  in  its  picturesque  and  healthful  suburbs,  the  life 
of  the  Peruvian  people  is  noted  for  its  many  agreeable  features,  some  of  which  are  to  be 
attributed  to  the  blessings  of  climate  and  the  prodigality  with  which  Nature  has  showered 
her  wealth  on  the  land,  though  most  of  them  are  undoubtedly  due  to  the  amiable  and 
generous  qualities  of  the  people  themselves,  who  have  made  their  country  renowned 
abroad  as  the  abode  of  an  ever  abundant  and  polite  hospitality. 


THE    PRESENT    STANDARD  OF    LIMA.  AS 
MODIFIED  IN  1808. 


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CHAPTER  XIII 


PERUVIAN    HOSPITALITY   AND   CULTURE 


TF  the  Spanish-Americans  have  inher- 
ited from  their  European  ancestors 
too  much  of  the  aristocratic  pride  and 
military  arrogance  that  distinguished 
Peninsular  crusaders,  they  have  also 
fallen  heir  to  the  courtly  grace  and 
admirable  savoir  faire  which  made  the 
Knights  of  Santiago  and  Alcantara 
famous  among  the  first  gentlemen  of 
Europe  four  centuries  ago,  and  which, 
descending  to  their  children's  children, 
have  become  characteristic  of  the 
Spanish-speaking  people  all  over  the 
world,  in  America,  and  more  particu- 
larly in  Peru,  the  influence  of  New 
World  conditions  fostered  a  relaxation 
of  austere  exclusiveness  and  a  soften- 
ing of  military  severity;  the  lavish  opu- 
lence that  reigned  in  the  viceroyalty, 
with  its  attendant  pleasures,  led  colonial 
society  to  assume  a  gayety  and  freedom  which  would  have  been  impossible  in  the  atmos- 
phere of  rigorous  etiquette  that  dominated  Madrid,  and  Lima  gradually  became  more 
renowned  for  its  sociability  than  for  the  strictness  of  its  court.  Both  influences  may  be 
seen,  however,  in  the  development  of  the  Peruvian  society  of  to-day,  which  is  reserved 
and  dignified  in  manner,  clever,  hospitable,  and  kind. 

Although  the  national  traits  vary  according  to  locality  and  inherited  tendencies,  the 

inhabitants  of  the  coast  possessing  characteristics  which  are  not  so  clearly  defined  in  the 

203 


A  MODERN   PRIVATE   RESIDENCE  OF   LIMA. 


204  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

people  of  the  sierra,  while  these  again  differ  in  their  customs  from  their  neighbors  of  the 
Amazon  valleys,  yet,  everywhere  and  at  all  times,  the  Peruvian's  Mi  casa  es  a  Vd — "  My 
house  is  yours" — is  a  spontaneous  word  of  welcome.  The  Limefios,  as  natives  of  the 
capital  are  called,  are  noted  for  their  esprit  and  imagination,  and  are  especially  gifted  in 
the  social  qualities  for  which  their  ancestors  were  celebrated  a  hundred  years  ago;  while 
they  are,  happily,  outgrowing  the  heritage  of  less  admirable  tendencies,  bequeathed  by  the 
luxurious  and  extravagant  society  of  the  viceregal  court.  The  progress  of  the  nation  within 
the  past  half  a  century  shows  that  the  race  is  strong,  full  of  purpose,  and  capable  of 
working  out  a  noble  destiny.  During  the  first  twenty  years  of  the  republic,  the  social  life 
of  Lima  did  not  change  greatly  from  what  it  had  been  in  the  pleasure-loving  court  of  the 
viceroyalty.  Visitors  to  Peru  in  those  early  times  tell  us  that  the  propensity  for  card 
playing  was  one  of  the  greatest  evils  the  new  government  had  to  combat,  and  that 
ministers,  envoys,  and  officers  of  all  ranks  fell  under  its  spell.  It  is  said  that  the  celebrated 
Baquijano  once  had  to  send  for  a  bullock  cart  to  take  home  his  winnings,  amounting  to 
more  than  thirty  thousand  dollars.  The  chroniclers  do  not  state  whether  the  game 
resembled  our  modern  poker  or  our  bridge  whist!  Those  were  the  days  when  General 
San  Martin  gave  his  assemblies  at  the  palace  once  a  week,  and  balls  were  held  at  which 
round  dances  began  to  take  the  place  of  the  minuet,  the  mariqidta,  and  the  fandango.  As 
the  influence  of  the  new  regime  made  itself  felt  everywhere,  political  and  literary  coteries 
lessened  the  number  of  card  parties  and  music  and  dancing  became  more  popular  in  the 
houses  of  the  leading  people. 

it  was  not  so  easy  to  reform  the  custom,  popular  among  the  ladies  of  those  days,  of 
wearing  the  saya  y  manto,  a  coquettish  feminine  dress  of  the  viceregal  period,  which  had 
been  under  the  ban  of  devout  churchmen  for  two  hundred  years  before  the  independence. 
Its  evil  influence  seems  to  have  been  of  a  subtle  kind,  to  judge  from  the  conflicting 
impressions  it  made  on  different  travellers.  It  is  described  by  one  who  was  in  Lima  a 
century  ago  and  saw  the  ladies  of  that  day  arrayed  in  all  their  charming  grace  and  armed 
with  their  irresistible  coquetries,  as  "a  very  handsome  and  genteel  costume;"  though  not 
all  foreigners  described  it  in  such  moderate  and  conventional  terms.  The  saya  was  a  skirt  of 
velvet,  satin,  or  stuff,  of  black,  purple,  pale  blue,  or  other  colors,  sometimes  striped ;  it  was 
pleated  in  small  folds  and  clung  to  the  figure  in  such  a  way  as  to  display  the  contour  to  the 
best  advantage.  Some  of  these  sayas  were  very  narrow  at  the  bottom  so  that  the  wearer 
was  obliged  to  take  short  steps  in  walking,  a  custom  that  made  the  Limefia's  tiny  feet  look 
still  smaller  as  she  tripped  daintily  along  the  street;  the  bottom  of  her  saya  was  often 
trimmed  with  lace,  fringe,  pearls,  or  artificial  flowers;  the  smaller  her  feet,  the  richer  and 
more  elaborate  was  the  garniture  that  bordered  her  saya.  With  this  garment  went  the 
manto,  a  hood  of  thin  black  silk  drawn  around  the  waist  and  then  carried  over  the  head 
and  held  together  in  front  so  as  to  hide  all  the  face  except  one  eye.  It  is  said  that  in  this 
costume  a  lady  could  pass  her  most  intimate  friend  without  being  recognized,  and  mystery 
enveloped  the  identity  of  every  feminine  figure  seen  on  the  street  in  those  days.    A  dainty 


PERUyiAhl  HOSPITALITY  AND  CULTURE 


20^ 


lace  handkerchief,  a  rosary  in  the  hand,  a  glimpse  of  satin  shoes  and  silk  stockings,  and  an 
abundance  of  jewels  completed  the  toilette.  The  manio  was  undoubtedly  derived  from  the 
Moors,  and  must  have  appeared  a  curious  headdress  when  seen  for  the  first  time.  The 
Limenas  wore  it  in  the  most  fascinating  style,  and  the  one  eye  that  was  visible  between  its 
folds  was  made  to  do  double  duty  as  a  weapon  of  war  or  love.  The  secret  of  enhancing 
its  potent  charm  was  as  complicated  as  are  the  mysteries  of  the  tocador  in  modern  Spanish 
boudoirs.  It  was  customary  to  darken  the  brows  and  heighten  the  brilliancy  of  the  eyes 
with  cosmetics  when  Nature  proved  unkind  or  too  sparing  of  her  favors;  though  it  was  the 
exception,  as  it  is  to-day,  when  a  Limefia's  eyes  lacked  beauty  and  brilliancy.  Gradually 
the  sayay  manio  gave  place  to  the  very  full  skirt  and  mantilla, — similar  to  the  costume  still 
worn  to  church  service.  A  long  war  was  waged  against  the  manto  by  the  authorities  of  the 
viceroyalty,  who  claimed  that  it  fostered  intrigue  and  a  thousand  dangerous  proclivities; 
but  the  wearers  insisted  that  it  protected  their  complexion  from  the  sun,  and  was  necessary 
for  their  personal  comfort  as  well  as  convenience.    As  early  as  1609  an  attempt  was  made 


ENTRANCE   TO  THE   BOTANICAL  GARDEN.  LIMA 


to  prohibit  the  saya  y  manto  in  Lima,  but  not  until  it  declined  in  fashion,  more  than  two 
hundred  years  later,  did  the  Lima  belles  abandon  this  mode  for  a  more  modern  costume. 


2o6 


THE  OLD  yiND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


It  is  said  that  the  saya  y  manto  played  a  very  important  part  in  the  cause  of  independence, 
and  that  the  wearers  of  this  effective  disguise  carried  messages,  assisted  the  patriots  when 


CiRAND   STAND   OF    THE    JOCKEY   CLUB.   LIMA. 


imprisonment  or  hardship  overtook  them,  and  rendered  a  great  many  valuable  services  to 
the  cause  of  liberty. 

Many  of  the  leading  families  of  Peru  are  descendants  of  Spanish  nobles  who  came  over 
with  the  viceroys,  and  a  few  trace  their  ancestry  from  the  conquerors;  but  the  best  fibre  of 
the  nation  is  derived  from  the  enterprising  colonists  who  established  commerce  in  the 
country  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  and  by  their  industry  and  practical 
energy  laid  the  foundations  for  a  better  development  of  the  mercantile  interests  of  Peru. 
They  helped  to  overcome  the  traditional  feeling  that  it  was  beneath  the  dignity  of  a  Spaniard 
to  be  employed  otherwise  than  as  a  statesman,  a  soldier,  a  scholar,  or  a  priest ;  and  among 
the  descendants  of  Spanish  grandees  are  to  be  found  to-day  many  active  and  progressive 
bankers,  merchants,  constructing  engineers,  and  "  captains  of  industry,"  who  are  contributing 
to  make  Peru  rich  and  prosperous  among  the  nations  of  the  modern  world.  This  spirit  is 
more  generally  seen  in  the  capital  and  the  seaports  than  in  the  cities  of  the  interior,  though 
it  is  gradually  extending  to  the  remotest  hamlets. 

In  Lima  and  Callao,  increased  attention  is  paid  to  business  every  year,  and  the  days 
of  fiesta,  which  once  numbered  almost  as  many  as  those  devoted  to  work,  are  being 


PERUI/MN  HOSPITALITY  AND  CULTURE 


207 


constantly  reduced,  even  the  holidays  that  remain,  though  none  the  less  thoroughly 
enjoyed,  having  lost  many  colonial  features.  Carnival,  the  gayest  holiday  festival  of  the 
year,  is  now  quite  a  subdued  celebration  compared  with  what  it  was  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  when  "  Lima  was  no  more  than  a  city  of  Andalusia  transplanted  to  the 
New  World,  with  all  the  extravagances  of  the  romantic,  artistic,  and  audacious  spirit  of  old 
Seville,  Malaga,  and  Cordova."  The  freedom  of  the  Carnival  season  then  pervaded  all 
ranks  of  society,  and  for  three  days  no  one  thought  of  anything  but  pleasure.  As  late  as 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  mask  and  domino  were  costumes  dc  rigueur  for 
Carnival,  and  fancy  dress  balls  were  given  in  many  private  residences.  The  Viceroy  Amat 
made  the  Carnival  season  one  of  unprecedented  gayety,  with  bull  fights,  promenades  in 
the  Avenida  de  Acho,  and  a  bal  masque  at  night.  One  can  imagine  the  charm  of  these 
festivities  in  the  delightful  climate  of  Lima,  with  the  soft  music  of  the  guitar  and  the 
mandolin  vibrating  on  the  night  air  under  a  dozen  balconies,  and  the  dance  of  the  mariquifa 
and  the  fandango  keeping  time  to  a  clicking  of  castanets  in  hundreds  of  gayly  decorated 
salas.  The  saya  y  manto  played  its  part,  and  many  a  jealous  episode  followed  the  rivalry 
among  young  Limefios  for  the  favor  of  a  glance  from  the  one  eye  that  looked  out  tanta- 
lizingly  through  a  tapada.  The  custom  of  deluging  the  passer-by  with  the  contents  of  a 
water-jug  was  formerly  more  general  than  it  is  to-day,  when  the  little  red  globo  of  scented 


PRINCIPAL   HALL  OF   THE   INTERNATIONAL   REVOLVER   CLUB.  LIMA. 


water  is  the  chief  weapon  of  Carnival  sport.    The  globo,  when  filled,  is  about  one-fourth 
the  size  of  a  toy  balloon,  and  is  made  of  the  same  material,  breaking  easily  and  splashing 


<*. 


208 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


its  contents  over  the  victim  at  whom  it  is  thrown.    Though  Carnival  is  still  a  merry  holiday, 
modern  municipal  ordinances  are  annually  restricting  its  more  extravagant  features. 

The  national  holiday,  July  28th,  the  anniversary  of  Peruvian  independence,  is  celebrated 
with  patriotic  processions,  speeches,  and  entertainments;  it  is  the  opening  day  of  Congress, 

and  is  always  an  occa- 
sion of  general  festivity. 
The  day  begins,  as  do 
all  public  holidays  in 
Peru,  with  religious  ser- 
vice in  the  Cathedral. 
There  are  eighteen  public 
holidays,  two  of  which. 
Independence  Day  and 
the  feast  day  of  Our 
Lady  of  Mercy,  the  pa- 
tron saint  of  the  arms 
of  Peru,  are  recognized 
as  national.  The  feast 
of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy 
is  held  on  the  24th  of 
September,  and  is  cele- 
brated with  imposing 
church  ceremonies  and 
a  magnificent  proces- 
sion, in  which  the  high 
church  dignitaries,  with 
the  Archbishop  of  Lima 
at  their  head,  are  pres- 
ent. The  various  reli- 
gious orders,  including 
the  Franciscan,  Dominican,  Augustinian,  and  others,  form  part  of  the  procession,  and  the 
army  appears  in  gala  uniform  and  full  force  of  infantry,  cavalry,  and  artillery.  The 
church  service,  attended  by  the  president  of  the  republic  and  his  cabinet,  is  one  of 
especial  solemnity,  and  all  Lima  does  homage  to  the  occasion.  The  streets  and  plazas 
are  thronged  by  sunrise,  an  eager  crowd  assembling  in  front  of  the  government  palace 
to  see  the  president  pass  in  his  handsome  state  coach  drawn  by  eight  horses  and 
guided  by  a  smart  coachman  and  grooms.  Another  annual  feast  day  of  importance,  at 
least  in  the  capital,  is  the  30th  of  August,  the  day  set  apart  for  the  celebration  in  honor 
of  Santa  Rosa  de  Lima,  the  patron  saint  of  Lima,  the  Philippines,  and  all  America.  The 
birthday  of  St.  Joseph  (San  Jose),  the  patron  of  the  republic  of   Peru,  is  celebrated 


THE  AMERICAN  LEGATION   AT  LIMA. 


PEIiUI^'lAN  HOSPITALITY  AND  CULTURE 


209 


on  the  19th  of  March.     The  remaining  holidays  are  the  same  as  those  observed  in  all 
Catiiolic  countries. 

The  hospitality  of  the  Peruvians  is  especially  seen  in  their  homes,  where  the  stranger 
finds  them  thoughtful,  courteous,  and  invariably  polite  and  attentive.  One  has  here  a 
good  opportunity  to  learn  the  family  customs,  which  are  simple  and  cordial.  The  houses 
of  Peru  are  generally  of  one  or  two  stories,  and  are  built  around  a  court  or  patio,  which  is 
usually  beautified  with  plants  and  flowers  and  often  paved  with  ornamental  tiles,  making 
it  a  delightfully  cool  and  comfortable  place  for  the  family  reunion  in  the  evening,  it 
takes  the  place  of  the  verandah,  so  popular  in  North  America.  The  daily  routine  of  a 
Peruvian  family  does  not  differ  greatly  from  that  of  the  Latin  people  in  all  countries, 
where  the  desayitno,  or  early  breakfast,  consists  of  a  cup  of  coffee  and  a  roll,  taken  in 
one's  room,  sometimes  as  early  as  six  o'clock,  the  midday  meal,  or  breakfast  proper, 
being  much  more  elaborate  than  the  same  meal  in  England  or  the  United  States,  while 
the  dinner,  between  six  and  eight  in  the  evening,  is  more  or  less  the  same  as  in  all 
countries.  Criollo  cooking,  as  the  preparation  of  food  according  to  Spanish-American 
taste  is  called,  has  given  place  in  many  houses  to  the  French  cuisine,  though  one  may 


BARRANCO,   A  SEASIDE   SUBURB  OF   LIMA. 


still  enjoy  the  peppery  dishes  of  native  origin  in  the  sierra,  and  a  few  choice  specialties 
of  traditional  excellence  retain  their  hold  on  the  national  palate.  The  after-dinner  coffee 
is  usually  taken  in  the  patio  in  summer  and  in  the  drawing-room  during  the  season  of 
the  gariia.     In  the  evening,  music  and  dancing  are  favorite  amusements,  the  piano,  guitar. 


2IO 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE14^  PERU 


mandolin,  or  other  musical  instruments  being  among  the  necessities  of  every  well-regulated 
home.    The  foreigner  is  at  once  impressed  by  the  refinement  and  grace  which  distinguish 


PARK    AT    BARRANCO. 


the  people  in  their  home  life,  and  which  are  evidences  of  the  long  inheritance  of  a  cultured 
race.  Travellers  have  extolled  the  people  of  Lima  for  their  intelligence,  imagination,  and 
charming  hospitality;  the  AreqtUpenos  are  eulogized  by  Flammarion,  who  says:  "Arequipa 
is  the  most  agreeable  place  of  abode  in  South  America,  not  only  for  the  suavity  of  its  climate 
but  also  because  of  the  hospitable  customs  of  its  people."  The  cordiality  of  the  families  of 
Cuzco  is  no  less  abundantly  proved  by  those  who  have  enjoyed  a  visit  to  this  historic  city, 
in  which  it  is  the  custom  to  extend  charming  hospitality  to  the  stranger.  It  is  the  same  in 
the  other  cities  of  the  republic,  where  a  kindly  welcome  awaits  the  visitor  and  every  courtesy 
is  shown  to  the  traveller. 

The  increasing  population  of  foreigners  in  Peru,  and  the  custom  among  well-to-do 
Peruvians  of  sending  their  children  to  Europe  and  the  United  States  to  complete  their 
education  has  led  to  the  introduction  of  more  cosmopolitan  social  customs  than  formerly 
existed,  and  this  is  seen  especially  in  the  outdoor  sports  and  amusements.  Although  the 
bull  fight  and  the  Spanish  game  of  pelota  still  attract  a  large  number  of  spectators,  the  lawn 
tennis  games  are  also  popular;  football  and  baseball  claim  a  great  many  enthusiastic 
Peruvian  players,  and  regattas  are  always  attended  by  immense  crowds  of  people.  The 
horse  races  have  become  a  regular  feature  of  sport,  and  at  the  Cancha,  or  race  track,  on 


PERUyiAN  HOSlTrALITY  AND  CULTURE 


21  I 


"  Derby  Day,"  the  best  Lima  society  may  be  seen  in  its  most  fashionable  attire,  which  Is 
usually  of  Parisian  style  and  is  often  imported  direct  from  the  French  capital.  The  new 
president-elect  of  Peru,  Don  Augusto  Leguia,  has  a  stock  farm  near  the  capital,  on  which 
some  of  the  best  thoroughbreds  of  South  America  have  been  reared,  and  his  horses  are 
usually  among  the  favorite  winners  on  Derby  Day. 

Though  most  of  the  private  fortunes  of  Limefios  were  swept  away  at  the  time  of  the 
war  with  Chile,  when  the  destruction  of  property  was  great  in  Lima  and  its  suburbs,  as 
well  as  on  the  haciendjs  of  the  wealthy  planters,  yet  the  present  generation  has  recovered 
a  great  deal  of  the  former  prosperity,  and  at  important  social  functions,  such  as  the  balls 
given  within  the  past  two  years  to  the  Duke  of  the  Abruzzi  and  Prince  Udine,  of  Italy,  to 
General  Saenz  Pefia  of  Argentina,  and  to  Hon.  Elihu  Root  of  the  United  States,  the 
costumes  and  jewels  displayed  are  of  the  most  costly  and  elegant  description.  The  ladies 
of  Lima  have  always  been  famous  for  their  winning  and  gracious  manners,  and  every 
writer  on  Peru  has  paid  a  compliment  to  their  tiny  feet,  in  which  one  traveller  finds  a 
sufficient  excuse  for  the  Q.  b.  s.  p.  ("who  kisses  your  feet")  with  which  letters  to  ladies  are 
usually  finished  in  Spanish,  instead  of  the  very  matter-of-fact  "Yours  sincerely"  that  closes 


STAIRWAY  OF   THE   NATIONAL   CLUB.   LIMA. 


an  epistle  in  English.     The  Peruvian  hostess  entertains  with  the  grace  du  salon  which  is 
hers  by  inheritance,  and  her  tertiilLis  are  altogether  charming.     But  she  does  not  confine  her 


212 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  hIElV  PERU 


MAIN    CORRIDOR   OF    THE   NATIONAL   CLUB,  LIMA. 


energies  to  social  duties  alone,  her  charities  occupying  a  great  deal  of  attention.    Three 
years  ago,  a  number  of  ladies  of  the  best  society  of  Lima  formed  a  club,  called  the  "  Centro 

Social,"  for  the  purpose 
of  establishing  institutes 
in  which  the  daughters 
of  gentlewomen  without 
fortune  could  secure,  free 
of  charge,  the  necessary 
training  to  fit  them  for 
earning  their  living.  It 
was  proposed  to  teach 
stenography,  bookkeep- 
ing, telegraphy,  photog- 
raphy, drawing,  and 
other  branches,  which 
would  provide  the 
knowledge  required  by 
girls  in  search  of  remu- 
nerative employment. 
This  effort  shows  the 
spirit  of  practical  benev- 
olence which  animates  the  Limefia  in  her  charitable  work.  It  is  a  long  step  toward  relieving 
the  pressure  of  modern  needs  when  a  race,  whose  women  have  been  so  closely  guarded  as 
have  those  of  Spanish  ancestry,  can  throw  off  the  prejudices  of  traditional  custom  and  meet 
a  present  demand  with  a  present  remedy.  The  adverse  fortunes  of  war  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  United  States  forced  many  gently  born  women  to  enter  the  business  world.  At 
first  they  stayed  at  home  and  earned  a  pittance  bending  over  the  embroidery  frame,  but 
modern  machinery  made  even  this  a  hopeless  effort  in  the  face  of  too  strong  competition, 
and  they  turned  their  attention  to  more  lucrative  posts.  While  war  continues  to  destroy 
the  natural  breadwinners  of  society  and  to  deplete  the  home  treasury,  it  is  useless  to 
preach  about  "woman's  sphere." 

While  the  descendants  of  the  Spaniards  in  Peru  have  been  the  directing  power  in  the 
affairs  of  the  republic,  as  they  were  in  the  viceroyalty,  yet  the  mestizo  and  the  Indian  have 
not  remained  ciphers  in  the  social  development  of  the  nation.  The  descendants  of  the  Inca 
princes  were  educated  in  colonial  days  in  colleges  especially  established  for  that  purpose, 
and  under  the  republic  all  classes  of  Indians  have  received  the  benefits  of  instruction ;  but 
it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  descendants  of  the  Inca's  humble  subjects  can  show  the 
same  degree  of  progress  as  those  whose  ancestors  were  of  the  family  of  Manco-Ccapac,  and 
had  the  mental  training  of  royal  princes  for  long  generations.  The  latter  are  intelligent,  very 
proud,  and  have  shown   themselves  worthy  of  the  white  man's  admiration   on   many 


PERUyiAN  HOSPITALITY  AND  CULTURE 


213 


occasions.    General  Andres  Santa  Cruz  was  of  the  Inca's  race,  as  were  many  others  who 
contributed  to  the  triumph  of  republican  principles  in  the  great  war  of  independence.     In 


^^         h 

■^^^^^^^^t^^^^^^m.                                               ""  .^^Hr     ^^H 

ANNUAL    PROCESSION    IN    HONOR   OF    SAINT   ROSE    OF    LIMA. 


the  sierra,  many  families  of  Inca  descent,  whose  sons  have  filled  posts  of  importance  in  the 
republic,  have  comfortable  homes  and  broad  acres  rich  in  harvests.  The  race,  as  a  whole, 
however,  shows  no  more  initiative  to-day  than  at  the  time  of  the  conquest;  under  the 
present  government,  the  Indian  is  generally  contented  and  obedient,  peacefully  cultivating 
the  fields  as  he  did  under  the  Inca's  rule.  His  songs,  called  tristes  by  his  Spanish  com- 
patriots, are  most  melancholy  and  seem  to  express  the  sadness  of  ages.  Indeed,  the 
Indian  himself  looks  like  a  survival  of  antiquity,  out  of  place  in  a  modern  world.  The 
mesti{os  are  apparently  a  much  happier  people  than  the  Indians;  they  are  good  artisans  and 
are  successful  in  trade.  They  attend  faithfully  to  religious  duties,  and  throng  the  pro- 
cessions of  the  Virgin,  and  other  feasts  in  celebration  of  the  saints.  These  processions  take 
place  in  every  city  and  town  of  the  republic,  and  though  they  have  lost  much  of  the 
sumptuous  magnificence  that  characterized  all  religious  festivals  under  the  viceroyalty,  they 
are  still  conducted  with  great  ceremony. 

Both  the  religious  and  the  educational  institutions  of  the  country  have  contributed  to 
impress  on  the  social  culture  of  the  Peruvians  a  distinct  individuality;  added  to  these 
influences,  within  recent  years  an  independent  factor  has  been  introduced,  in  the  form  of 
clubs  and  societies  of  a  literary  and  scientific  character,  which  encourage  the  development 
of  independent  thought  among  the  people.  Associations  of  professional  men  meet  to 
discuss  the  latest  discoveries  in  the  science  with  which  their  labor  is  identified,  and 
delegates  are  sent  to  the  principal  gatherings  of  a  scientific  character  which  are  held 


214 


THE  OLD  ^ND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


annually  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  artisans  also  have  their  clubs  and  take  an  increasing 
interest  in  the  progress  of  industrial  labor  in  their  own  and  other  countries,  in  some  of 
these  clubs  classes  are  held  for  the  purpose  of  education. 

In  order  to  know  and  appreciate  the  social  life  of  a  nation  it  is  necessary  to  become 
acquainted  with  its  various  public  institutions,  not  only  the  clubs  and  societies  that  represent 
the  ambitions  of  a  few  intellectual  citizens,  but  its  libraries  and  schools,  the  productions  in 
literature  and  art  effected  by  its  people,  and  the  popular  sentiment  as  interpreted  through 
the  press.  In  the  literature  and  the  art  of  a  nation  are  expressed  its  deepest  feeling  and 
highest  aspirations. 


ROAD  TO   THE   BEACH,  CHORILLOS. 


'^K,/ 


PORTRAIT.      BY   ALBERT   LYNCH. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


THE   NATIONAL   LIBRARY— PERUVIAN    WRITERS— PAINTING   AND   ILLUSTRATIVE   ART 


IN  accordance  with  the  liberal  principles  of 
an  independent  nation,  one  of  the  first  acts 
of  the  government,  after  the  inauguration  of 
the  republic,  was  to  issue  a  decree  on  the 
28th  of  April,  1 82 1,  creating  the  National 
Library.  Freedom  of  the  press  was  established 
at  the  same  time,  and  other  measures  were 
adopted  by  which  the  newly  emancipated 
people  could  enjoy  opportunities  for  gain- 
ing knowledge  that  had  not  been  available 
under  colonial  rule.  The  Liberator,  General 
San  Martin,  realizing  the  importance  of  pro- 
viding every  means  for  the  better  educa- 
tion of  the  masses,  took  advantage  of  the 
first  occasion  that  presented  itself  to  for- 
ward his  liberal  plans.  Not  only  was  public 
instruction  established  on  a  broad  basis,  but 
the  spirit  of  inquiry  was  stimulated  by  en- 
couraging the  publication  of  reading  matter, 
and  by  giving  literature  a  permanent  place 
among  the  national  institutions.  Formerly, 
the  means  of  gaining  information  had  been 

very  limited,  in   consequence   of  the  strict   rules  which   governed  the  distribution  of 

books. 

The  patriotic  motive  that  guided  the  Liberator  in  founding  the  National  Library  is 

evident  in  his  decree,  which  declares  that  "as  ignorance  is  the  strongest  pillar  of  despotism, 

free  governments  should  adopt  an  opposite  course,  allowing  mankind  to  follow  its  natural 

217 


DR.  RICARIX)   PALMA.  DIRECTOR   OF   THE   NATIONAL 
LIBRARY,  LIMA. 


2i8  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

impulse  toward  perfection."  Tlie  library  was  first  opened  to  the  public  on  the  17th  of 
September,  1822,  with  a  collection  of  about  twelve  thousand  volumes.  Many  of  these  were 
of  great  value,  as  the  long  residence  of  Spanish  state  and  church  officials  in  the  viceregal 
capital  had  resulted  in  the  introduction  of  the  best  European  literature,  some  of  which, 
interdicted  by  the  Holy  Office,  had  been  concealed  for  a  long  time,  and  came  to  light  only 
with  the  triumph  of  the  Independence.  All  the  works  printed  by  the  press  in  Peru  since  its 
first  establishment  in  1^80  were  placed  in  the  National  Library,  which  was  enriched  with 
rare  editions  of  the  Bible;  a  curious  volume  on  palmistry,  dated  1449,  presented  by  General 
San  Martin;  a  breviary,  printed  in  Venice  in  1489;  and  an  edition  of  Plato  of  still  older  pub- 
lication, as  well  as  complete  sets  of  the  writings  of  classic  and  modern  philosophers  and 
scientists.  The  nucleus  was  chiefly  derived  from  the  convents,  which  had  been  the  great 
repositories  of  literature  in  colonial  days,  and  many  Latin  books,  in  folio,  were  acquired, 
treating  chiefly  of  religious  subjects.  The  library  was  established  in  a  building  formerly 
occupied  by  the  College  of  Caciques,  famous  under  the  viceroyalty  as  an  institution  that 
provided  for  the  Christian  education  of  noble  descendants  of  the  Inca  emperors. 

When  the  Chilean  army  occupied  Lima  in  1881,  this  flourishing  institution,  which 
was  among  the  most  important  in  America,  was  destroyed,  the  valuable  collection,  then 
amounting  to  about  fifty  thousand  volumes,  being  in  part  carried  off  to  Chile  and  the 
remainder  publicly  sold  at  auction  by  weight. 

The  restoration  of  the  National  Library  is  largely  due  to  the  efforts  of  its  present 
director.  Dr.  Ricardo  Palma,  who  worked  with  zeal  and  enthusiasm  to  recover  a  treasure 
which  he  recognized  as  of  priceless  value,  since  it  represented  not  merely  intrinsic  worth  but 
also  the  standard  of  intellectual  recreation  which  the  public  demanded  after  half  a  century 
of  free  government.  Dr.  Palma  repurchased  some  of  the  precious  volumes  put  up  at 
auction,  and  secured  rare  old  manuscripts  that  had  been  sold  as  waste  paper.  The  portraits 
of  the  viceroys,  all  of  which  had  been  torn  down  from  the  walls  of  the  library  by  the 
invading  soldiery,  were  recovered,  with  two  or  three  exceptions.  This  collection  is  one  of 
the  most  notable  in  America,  as  the  portraits  are  consecutive  examples  of  the  art  of  three 
centuries,  and  provide  a  unique  study  for  the  connoisseur.  They  have  recently  been 
removed  to  the  National  Museum.  The  loss  of  the  library  was  one  which  no  effort  could 
entirely  replace,  and  the  Peruvian  people  regretted  it  as  a  bitter  calamity;  everything 
possible  was  immediately  done  toward  making  a  new  collection.  Other  nations  expressed 
their  regret  and  sympathy,  and  many  gifts  of  valuable  works  were  received.  Spain, 
Argentina,  the  United  States,  and  Ecuador  sent  generous  collections  of  books,  many 
patriotic  Peruvians  made  donations  from  their  private  possessions,  and,  in  1884,  the 
National  Library  reopened  with  twenty-eight  thousand  volumes. 

At  present  the  library  consists  of  fifty  thousand  books  and  manuscripts,  arranged 
according  to  a  systematic  classification.  The  library  building  occupies  a  central  location, 
and  is  a  typical  Spanish  edifice,  built  around  an  open  court,  or  pjtio,  with  upper  and  lower 
corridors,  which  were  originally  the  cloisters  of  the  College  of  Caciques.    The  rooms  used 


THE  NATIONAL  LIBRARY— LITERATURE  AND  ART 


219 


by  the  National  Library  extend  ihe  full  length  of  the  building,  and  include,  in  addition  to 
the  book  section,  a  commodious  reading-room,  furnished  with  modern  desks  and  lighted 
with  electricity;  the  library  is  open  to  the  public  in  the  evenings  as  well  as  during  the 
day.  On  the  bookshelves,  a  very  important  place  is  given  to  the  collection  sent  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institute,  of  Washington,  amounting  in  all  to  five  thousand  volumes.  A  recent 
acquisition,  known  as  the  Quixote  collection,  embraces  the  most  notable  editions  of 
Cervantes,  among  others  that  of  Argamasilla,  which  was  printed  with  silver  type,  and  one 
issued  in  Argentina  in  1905,  the  latter  being  the  only  edition  published  in  South  America. 


INTERIOR  OF  THE   NATIONAL   LIBRARY.  LIMA. 


This  classic  of  old  Spain  has  been  translated  into  eighteen  different  languages,  and  the 
Library  of  Lima  has  copies  of  all  except  the  Japanese,  Turkish,  Finnish,  and  Dutch  editions. 
The  library  has  also  been  enriched  by  a  gift,  from  President  Jose  Pardo,  of  sixty  volumes, 
the  scientific  collection  of  the  celebrated  ornithologist,  William  Nation,  purchased  by  His 
Excellency  for  the  section  of  natural  sciences. 

Dr.  Pal  ma  is  one  of  the  best-known  writers  of  South  America,  as  well  as  a  devoted 
bibliophilist,  and  his  knowledge  of  Spanish  literature  has  been  gained  through  years  of 
acquaintance  with  the  best  authors  of  Spain  and  Spanish  America.    In  restoring  the  National 


220  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

Library,  he  has  given  particular  attention  to  the  acquirement  of  noted  works  and  rare 
editions.  With  especial  pride  in  the  genius  of  his  compatriot,  Don  Pablo  Olavide,  whose 
literary  productions  had  a  tremendous  influence  in  stimulating  liberal  thought  among  the 
Spanish-Americans  a  hundred  years  ago,  Dr.  Palma  is  now  engaged  in  getting  together  a 
complete  collection  of  the  eleven  existing  editions  of  that  author's  El  Evangelio  en  Triiimfo, 
the  greater  part  of  which  he  had  already  secured.  Don  Pablo  Olavide  was  a  native  of  Lima, 
where  he  was  born  in  1725'.  When  a  young  man,  he  went  to  Europe,  became  an  enthu- 
siastic friend  of  Voltaire  and  an  admirer  of  the  Encyclopgedists,  and  was  a  special  mark  for 
the  surveillance  of  the  Holy  Office  until  his  death  in  1803.  His  books  were  read  with  avidity 
by  the  youth  of  Peru  and  the  other  Spanish  colonies,  and  they  may  be  said  to  have  prepared 
the  way  for  the  patriotic  movement  which  later  won  the  independence  of  Spanish-America. 

During  the  last  days  of  the  viceroyalty  the  sentiment  of  freedom  was  the  predomi- 
nating note  in  the  national  literature,  and  the  stirring  period  of  the  independence  brought 
many  gifted  orators  and  writers  into  prominence,  in  the  columns  of  the  Mercurio 
Peruano,  politics  and  poetry  were  themes  that  divided  honors  about  equally,  the  style  in 
which  a  political  essay  was  written  in  those  days  being  hardly  less  flowery  than  the 
language  of  verse.  In  this  periodical  also  appeared  articles  on  philosophy,  history,  and 
science.  Don  Hipolito  Unanue,  of  Arica,  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Mercurio  Peruano, 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  favor  of  republicanism  during  the  last  years  of  colonial  rule. 
He  wrote  under  the  pseudonym  of  "Ariosto,"  and,  after  the  inauguration  of  the  republic, 
continued  to  contribute  to  the  national  literature,  at  the  same  time  taking  an  active  part  in 
the  government  as  Minister  of  Finance  in  the  cabinet  of  President  Riva-Agiiero.  Contem- 
porary with  Unanue,  Bernardo  Alcedo,  a  noted  writer  and  musician,  fought  in  the  war  of 
independence  and  celebrated  the  victory  for  the  patriot  cause  by  composing  the  national 
hymn  of  Peru,  the  music  of  which  is  inspiring  and  triumphant.  Mariano  Eduardo  de  Rivero, 
the  author  of  Aiitigii'edades  Peruanas,  Jose  Gregorio  Paredes,  a  celebrated  astronomer  and 
mathematician,  Mateo  Aguilar,  whose  panegyric  on  Ignatius  Loyola  has  been  translated  into 
several  languages,  and  Manuel  Lorenzo  Vidaurre,  an  eminent  jurist,  the  first  president  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Peru,  were  among  the  celebrated  writers  who  flourished  during  the  early 
years  of  the  republic.  Miguel  Garaycochea,  author  of  Calculo  Binomial,  was  a  noted 
scientist  of  that  time. 

The  literature  of  Peru  reached  a  period  of  prolific  expression  about  the  middle  of  the 
past  century,  when  the  inimitable  satirists,  Felipe  Pardo  y  Aliaga  and  Manuel  Ascencio 
Segura  wrote  their  comedies  on  the  national  manners  and  customs.  Felipe  Pardo,  the 
grandfather  of  President  Jose  Pardo,  was  a  statesman  as  well  as  a  poet,  and  was  repre- 
senting his  government  as  minister  to  one  of  the  European  courts  when  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Spanish  Royal  Academy.  His  best  known  work  is  called  El  Espejo  de  mi 
tierra — "The  mirror  of  my  country," — and  gives  an  entertaining  picture  of  Peruvian  life 
fifty  years  ago.  Segura's  comedies,  written  about  the  same  time,  were  clever  satires  on  the 
prevailing  creole  customs,  especially  his  La  Saya  y  Manto,  Na  Catita,  El  Resignado,  and 


THE  NATIONAL  LIBRARY— LITERATURE  AND  ART 


221 


Lances  de  Amancaes.  Another  writer  of  the  same  period,  Manuel  Atanasio  Fuentes,  who 
satirized  the  political  and  social  foibles  of  his  day  in  a  periodical  called  El  Mtircielago, — 
"  The  Bat," — found  in  literary  work  a  pleasing  diversion.  He  was  a  noted  jurist  and  wrote 
treatises  on  constitutional  law,  administration,  and  similar  subjects.  The  Peruvian  critic  is 
often  satirical  in  his  treatment  of  men  and  books,  a  keen  sense  of  humor  giving  piquancy 
to  his  judgment,  in  this  art,  Don  Pedro  Paz  Soldan  y  Unanue  excelled,  his  pseudonym 
"Juan  de  Arona"  being  known  throughout  South  America.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Spanish  Academy  and  a  distinguished  Latin  and  Greek  scholar,    in  El  Chispa{o,  a  humorous 


PATIO  OF  THE  NATIONAL   LIBRARY,  LIMA. 


periodical  which  he  edited,  his  crisp  epigrammatic  style  was  at  its  best.  He  was  born  in 
Lima  in  1839  and  died  in  189^,  having  employed  his  talent  ably  and  successfully  through 
the  difficult  periods  when  his  country  was  facing  the  greatest  crises  that  could  arise  to 
impede  the  progress  of  a  young  nation. 

Many  of  the  intellectual  leaders  of  Peru  were  nurtured  under  the  strenuous  regirnen 
which  the  unsettled  conditions  of  the  first  thirty  years  of  republican  rule  made  necessary, 
their  genius  shining  out  with  brilliancy  during  the  period  of  peace  and  prosperity  that 
followed,  it  was  not  unusual  to  find  a  general  of  the  army,  whose  war  record  was  the 
pride  of  his  country,  devoting  himself  to  literary  work  later,  when  quiet  reigned.    One  of 


222  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

the  most  celebrated  historians  of  Peru,  Don  Manuel  Mendiburu,  wliose  monumental  work, 
Diccionario  Biografico  del  Peru  lias  made  his  name  immortal,  fought  in  the  patriot  ranks 
during  the  war  of  independence,  was  made  Minister  of  War  by  President  Gamarra,  became 
a  general  of  the  army,  and  was  president  of  the  commission  that  reformed  the  military 
laws,  as  they  exist  to-day.  He  was  a  statesman  as  well  as  a  soldier,  and  presided  over  the 
assembly  which,  in  i860,  promulgated  the  present  constitution  of  Peru.  As  Minister  of 
War,  Minister  of  Finance,  and  Diplomatic  Minister  to  England,  he  served  his  country  with 
honor  and  distinction,  being  one  of  the  most  illustrious  men  of  his  day,  in  war  and  peace. 
It  was  only  in  the  intervals  of  his  public  career  that  Dr.  Mendiburu  found  time  to  pursue 
his  biographical  studies,  the  results  of  which  are  most  important  to  Peruvian  literature. 
For,  though  this  great  work  is  called  a  dictionary,  its  sixteen  volumes  are  so  complete  in 
historical  information  as  to  be  entitled  to  rank  among  the  best  records  of  the  colonial  period 
of  Peru.  Of  the  eighty  years  that  covered  the  lifetime  of  this  great  man,  from  180^  to 
1885',  more  than  three  score  were  spent  in  public  service.  He  led  the  vanguard  in  the  last 
war,  was  War  Minister  in  1880,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  president  of  a  commission 
charged  with  the  reorganization  of  the  National  Archives.  It  is  not  often  that  human 
activity  extends  over  so  many  years,  and  one  is  accustomed  to  think  that  in  Latin  countries, 
and  especially  in  the  tropics,  the  spirit  of  youth  is  of  short  duration,  the  precocious  child 
arriving  early  at  the  zenith  of  his  possibilities,  and  declining  at  an  age  when  the  slower 
native  of  a  less  favored  zone  is  in  his  prime.  There  are  remarkable  exceptions  to  this  rule 
in  Peru,  where  the  years  have  passed  lightly  over  many  a  viejo  vcrde,  as  the  "green  old 
age"  is  called.  Don  Francisco  de  Paula  Vigil,  the  liberal  philosopher  of  Tacna,  prominent 
for  half  a  century  in  politics  and  literature  and  director  of  the  National  Library  for  forty 
years,  died  in  1875"  at  eighty-three  years  of  age.  Luciano  Cisneros,  an  eminent  orator, 
jurist,  and  writer  on  constitutional  law,  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Jurisprudence  in 
Madrid,  a  judge  of  the  Superior  Court,  Minister  of  State,  Diplomatic  Representative  of  his 
government  in  Europe,  and  held  his  own  among  the  leading  statesmen  of  Peru  until 
his  death  in  1906,  at  seventy-four  years  of  age.  Francisco  Garcia  Calderon,  a  member  of 
the  Spanish  Academy  and  a  writer  of  note  on  legal  and  other  subjects,  as  well  as  a  states- 
man of  renown,  was  one  of  the  most  active  leaders  in  promoting  his  country's  progress  at 
the  time  of  his  death,  in  1905',  though  he  had  already  passed  his  seventieth  year.  The 
present  director  of  the  National  Library,  though  still  one  of  the  younger  generation  in 
spirit  and  sympathy,  published  his  first  book,  Anales  de  la  Inquiskion  de  Lima,  forty- 
five  years  ago,  and  was  at  that  time  already  prominent  in  political  affairs.  As  consul  to 
Brazil,  secretary  to  President  Balta,  and  Senator  of  the  republic  in  three  legislatures,  he 
early  proved  himself  one  of  the  most  brilliant  young  men  of  the  nation,  and  when  he  went 
abroad  in  186^  after  leaving  Brazil,  his  genius  shone  with  lustre  in  the  highest  intellectual 
circles  of  Europe.  The  fame  of  Ricardo  Palma  rests  chiefly  on  his  masterpiece,  Tradiciones 
Peruanas,  the  only  literature  in  existence  which  gives  local  color  to  the  history  of  the  vice- 
royalty  in  Peru,  and  preserves  for  posterity  the  very  life  and  essence  of  its  fascinating 


THE  NATIONAL  LIBRARY— LITERATURE  AND  ART  22j 

social  annals.  The  Lima  of  the  Tradiciones  has  survived  the  change  of  government  and, 
though  one  no  longer  sees  the  viceroy  and  his  court,  it  is  still  possible  to  visit  many  places 
made  familiar  by  Dr.  Raima's  stories.  The  charming  Limefia  does  not  now  appear  in 
saya  y  manto,  it  is  true,  but  she  is  as  clever  and  bright  as  of  old:  the  Franciscan  friar  is  still 
in  evidence,  and  the  little  {ambo  wears  the  same  contented  countenance  that  distinguished 
his  ancestors  a  hundred  years  ago;  the  Indian  is  sad  and  patient,  as  the  author  of  Tradi- 
ciones paints  him.  The  characters  that  live  and  move  in  Ricardo  Raima's  book  are  real  and 
immortal.  Up  to  the  present  time  no  other  author  in  America  has  been  able  to  paint  such 
vivid  and  intimate  pictures  of  colonial  times.  The  work  was  originally  published  in  six 
volumes,  in  1870,  though  many  editions  have  since  appeared,  and  a  new  volume  has 
recently  been  added,  entitled  Ultimas  Tradiciones  Peruanas.  Ricardo  Raima  is  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Spanish  Academy,  the  Hispanic  Society  of  America,  and  other  leading  historical 
and  scientific  societies  of  Europe  and  America.  The  author  of  the  present  work  has  just 
completed  the  translation  of  Tradiciones  Peruanas  into  English. 

If  the  more  intimate  features  of  colonial  society  are  to  be  understood  only  through  a 
perusal  of  Tradiciones  Peruanas,  a  general  idea  of  the  viceroyalty  is  best  obtained  from  the 
works  of  Don  Sebastian  Lorente,  who  wrote  the  first  complete  history  of  Peru,  in  five 
volumes,  published  in  1871,  giving  an  especially  interesting  description  of  the  colonial  period. 
He  made  a  lifelong  study  of  the  history  of  the  country,  and  for  forty  years  lectured  on  his 
favorite  theme  in  the  University  of  San  Marcos.  Another  historian,  Don  Mariano  Raz  Soldan, 
contributed  a  most  important  geographical  work  to  the  literature  descriptive  of  his  country, 
and  wrote  several  books  on  historical  subjects.  His  Atlas  del  Peru  and  Diccionario  Geo- 
grafico  y  Estadistico,  published  thirty  years  ago,  contained  the  first  complete  description  of 
the  political  divisions  of  the  republic,  and  afforded  valuable  information  regarding  the  physical 
features,  climate,  resources,  and  population  of  Reru.  Dr.  Raz  Soldan  was  a  statesman  of 
noted  ability  and  rendered  invaluable  services  to  the  cause  of  education  and  in  behalf 
of  prison  reform.  As  Minister  of  Justice  and  Rublic  Instruction  in  the  cabinet  of  President 
Balta,  he  founded  a  school  of  sciences  and  reorganized  the  Universities  of  Arequipa  and 
Cuzco,  besides  establishing  numerous  secondary  schools.  The  illustrious  patriot  died  in 
1886  at  sixty-five  years  of  age,  his  funeral  being  conducted  with  State  ceremonies,  and 
attended  by  the  highest  officials  of  the  government.  The  historian,  Dr.  Eugenio  Larrabure  y 
Unanue,  pronounced  the  funeral  oration,  and  the  assemblage  at  the  bier  of  the  lamented 
scholar  was  representative  of  the  best  intellect  of  Reru.  Dr.  Larrabure  y  Unanue  is  the 
author  of  a  number  of  historical  works,  of  which  his  studies  relating  to  ancient  Reru  possess 
especial  interest  and  value.  He  is  also  a  statesman  and  diplomatist,  literature  being  his 
favorite  diversion  in  such  hours  of  leisure  as  an  active  public  career  affords.  Another  cele- 
brated Peruvian  authority  on  the  antiquities  of  the  country.  Dr.  Pablo  Patron,  is  a  scholar  of 
international  renown,  whose  archaeological  study.  La  Lluvia,  read  a  few  years  ago  before 
the  Congress  of  Americanists  at  Stuttgart,  attracted  general  attention  among  antiquarians. 
Dr.  Patron  has  rendered  important  services  to  his  country  in  scientific  research  and  has 


224 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


made  the  study  of  Peruvian  textiles  and  potteries  a  specialty,  giving  them  a  fascinating 
charm,  which  ethnologists  as  well  as  lovers  of  decorative  art  are  quick  to  appreciate. 

Several  students  of  the  litera- 
ture of  the  Incas  have  devoted 
themselves  to  the  task  of  preserving 
Incaic  legends  and  musical  com- 
positions. The  drama  Ollanta  has 
been  translated  into  Spanish  by 
three  well-known  scholars,  Don 
Jose  Sebastian  Barranca,  Dr.  Jose 
Fernando  Nadal,  and  Dr.  Gavino 
Pacheco  Zegarra.  Don  Jose  Maria 
Valleriestra,  a  musical  composer  of 
note,  is  the  author  of  two  operas, 
Ollanta  and  Atahuallpa,  which  have 
been  presented  in  Lima  and  else- 
where with  success.  The  greatest 
Peruvian  writer  on  the  subject  of 
Incaic  civilization  and  history — the 
most  celebrated  chronicler  of  his 
people — was  the  Inca  Garcilaso  de 
la  Vega,  who  was  born  in  Cuzco  in 
1^39,  and  died  in  Spain  in  1618. 
He  spent  the  first  twenty-one  years 
of  his  life  in  Peru,  his  father  Gar- 
cilaso, one  of  Pizarro's  followers, 
having  married  a  native  princess 
of  the  royal  line  of  Incas.  His 
Comentarios  Reales  are  still  regarded  as  the  most  authentic  source  of  information  existing 
in  reference  to  prehistoric  Peru. 

The  history  of  Peru,  both  ancient  and  modern,  is  a  theme  of  such  extraordinary  interest 
that  it  is  not  strange  Peruvian  writers  should  have  made  it  the  predominating  subject  of 
their  works.  No  country  has  such  a  wealth  of  romance  to  kindle  the  imagination  and  to 
inspire  the  poet,  and  no  country  has  greater  reason  to  be  proud  of  its  annals,  and  the 
patriotic  sentiment  which  finds  expression  in  the  literature  and  art  of  the  country  is 
altogether  admirable.  The  Atheneeum  of  Lima,  the  Geographic  Society,  and  the  Historical 
Institute,  all  intellectual  organizations,  were  created  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  study 
of  Peru,  from  a  literary,  geographical,  and  historical  standpoint,  and  their  libraries  contain 
many  valuable  works  by  Peruvian  as  well  as  foreign  writers.  The  first  of  these  institutions 
was  founded  under  the  name  of  the  Literary  Club  of  Lima,  in  1877,  Don  Francisco  Garcia 


DR.  JOSE  ANTONIO  MIRO  QUESADA,  THE   NESTOR  OF   THE 
PERUVIAN   PRESS. 


THE  NATIONAL  LIBRARY— LITERATURE  AND  ART 


22^ 


Calderon  being  its  president.  Ten  years  later  it  was  reorganized  and  took  the  name  of 
the  Athenaeum  of  Lima;  among  its  members  are  the  most  illustrious  scholars  of  Peru. 
Don  Luis  B.  Cisneros,  a  member  of  the  Spanish  Royal  Academy  and  one  of  Peru's  greatest 
poets  was  crowned  by  the  Athenaeum,  with  impressive  ceremonies,  in  1897.  His  poems, 
novels,  and  dramas  are  among  the  literary  treasures  of  his  country,  and  his  death,  which 
occurred  in  1903,  was  an  occasion  of  national  mourning.  The  Athenaeum  was  founded 
too  late  to  number  on  its  roll  the  gifted  poets  Clemente  Althaus,  Nicolas  Corpancho, 
Constantino  Carrasco,  Arnaldo  Marquez,  Trinidad  Fernandez,  and  Adolfo  Garcia,  who  died 
several  years  earlier;  Carlos  Augustus  Salaverry,  the  son  of  the  illustrious  General  Felipe 
Santiago  Salaverry,  and  a  poet  of  great  genius,  died  in  Paris  in  1888,  a  year  after  the 
Athenceum  was  organized;  and  Jose  Antonio  de  la  Lavalle,  a  member  of  the  Spanish 
Academy  and  a  diplomatist  of  notable  talent,  whose  literary  style  was  especially  distin- 
guished for  its  grace  and  purity,  reached  the  close  of  his  useful  and  brilliant  career  in 
1894,  at  sixty  years  of  age.  Don  Felix  Cipriano  Coronel  Zegarra,  of  the  Spanish  Royal 
Academy,  one  of  the  most  illustrious  scholars  of  Peru  and  a  member  of  the  Athenseum, 
collected  a  great  deal  of  valuable  information  relating  to  the  literature  of  his  country, 
and  his  Notes  for  a  Literary  History  of  Peru,  now  in  possession  of  the  Faculty  of  Letters 
of  the  University,  contains  suificient  material  for  a  literary  encyclopaedia. 


COLUMBUS   BEFORE  THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  SALAMANCA.      BY  IGNACIO  MERINO. 


The  present  president  of  the  Athenseum  is  Dr.  Javier  Prado  y  Ugarteche,  Dean  of  the 
Faculty  of  Letters  of  the  University,  a  statesman  and  diplomatist,  as  well  as  an  author  of 


226 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


distinction.     His  book  on  tlie  condition  of  Peru  during  the  viceroyalty  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  studies  in  sociology  written  within  recent  years.     Dr.  Prado  y  Ugarteche  is  a 

booklover  of  fine  judgment,  and  he  possesses 
one  of  the  largest  and  most  valuable  libraries 
in  America.  His  brother,  Dr.  Mariano  Prado  y 
Ugarteche,  is  also  a  statesman  and  a  bibli- 
ophilist.  He  is  the  author  of  important  works 
on  literature  and  Incaic  history.  As  a  member 
of  the  Athen^um,  and  as  vice-president  of 
the  Historical  Institute,  he  has  done  much  to 
promote  the  success  of  both  these  organiza- 
tions. Another  prominent  member  of  the 
Athengeum,  who  is  secretary  of  the  Historical 
Institute  as  well,  Don  Jose  Toribio  Polo,  occu- 
pies a  unique  place  among  Peruvian  scholars 
as  a  bibliographer  and  a  literary  critic.  He  was 
formerly  Dr.  Palma's  assistant  in  the  directorate 
of  the  National  Library,  and  to  his  patient  in- 
vestigation of  ancient  documents  is  due  the 
elucidation  of  many  facts  in  the  past  history 
of  the  country,  his  thorough  knowledge  of 
Peruvian  chronicles  giving  especial  value  to 
the  critical  studies  he  has  made  of  various 
historical  works. 

The  purposes  of  the  Athenseum  and  the 
Historical  Institute  are  closely  related,  both 
aiming  to  encourage  intellectual  progress,  and 
many  writers  of  prominence  belong  to  both 
societies.  The  Athenaeum  has  been  called 
upon  to  mourn  the  loss  of  some  of  its  most  distinguished  members  within  the  past  few 
years,  among  them  Don  Carlos  German  Amezaga,  a  poet  of  rare  genius  and  culture,  who 
was  its  vice-president  at  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1907.  He  belonged  to  a  family  of  noted 
talent,  his  father,  Don  Mariano  Amezaga,  having  been  a  philosopher  and  writer  of  great  ability. 
The  secretary  of  the  Athenseum,  Don  Francisco  Garcia  Calderon  y  Rey,  and  the  assistant 
secretary,  Don  Jose  de  la  Riva-Agiiero  y  Osma,  also  inherit  their  literary  genius,  their  surnames 
indicating  their  distinguished  descent.  Don  Jose  Santos  Chocano  has  attained  an  honored 
place  among  the  literary  lights  of  Europe,  and  the  Atheneeum  is  justly  proud  of  his  success. 
Don  Luis  Fernan  Cisneros,  Don  Teobaldo  Elias  Corpancho,  Don  Carlos  Larrabure  y  Correa, 
Don  Clemente  Palma,  Don  Aurelio  Arnao,  and  Don  Jose  Augusto  de  Izcue  are  among  the 
poets  whose  verses  are  a  credit  to  the  Athenaeum.    Don  Jose  Izcue  writes  history  as  well  as 


THE    DISILLUSION   OF    THE   ARTIST. 
BY  DANIEL   HERNANDEZ. 


THE  NATIONAL  LIBRARY— LITERATURE  AND  ART 


227 


poetry.  As  Director-general  of  Public  Instruction  in  the  ministerio  of  Dr.  Jorge  Polar,  he  was 
identified  with  the  inauji;uration  of  the  Historical  Institute,  and  especially  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  museum,  being  appointed  director  of  the  department  devoted  to  the  colonial 
and  republican  collection.  His  historical  works  are  chiefly  studies  of  the  republican  period. 
In  the  Rev/sta  Historica  and  the  quarterly  review  of  the  Geographic  Society,  the  repre- 
sentative scientific  periodicals  of  Lima,  and  in  Prism.i,  Adualidades,  Vamdades  and  other 
illustrated  weeklies  of  superior  literary  and  artistic  merit,  the  best  intellect  of  Peru  has 
found  expression.  Don  Carlos  Romero,  the  editor  of  the  Rnista  Hblorica,  Don  Clemente 
Palma,  editor  of  yariediuies  and  Don  Enrique  Castilla,  editor  of  Adualidades,  are  writers  of 
exceptional  talent  and  originality.  Period- 
ical literature  is  a  popular  avenue  for  the 
literary  aspirant,  and  the  number  of  writers 
increases  as  the  magazines,  reviews,  hu- 
morous weeklies,  and  daily  newspapers 
multiply.  The  directors  of  all  these  pub- 
lications are  writers  of  note,  and  it  is 
frequently  through  their  initiative  that 
societies  are  formed  for  the  promotion  of 
science  or  literature.  The  founder  of  the 
Geographic  Society,  Don  Luis  Carranza,  a 
native  of  Ayacucho  and  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  writers  of  Peru,  was  at  one 
time  a  director  of  El  Comerdo,  the  oldest 
daily  newspaper  in  Peru.  He  was  the 
author  of  important  historical  works  and 
his  influence  was  great  in  stimulating  in- 
tellectual progress.  Few  institutions  in 
South  America  are  better  known  abroad 
than  the  Lima  Geographic  Society,  which 
was  founded  in  1888  and  installed  in  its 
present  quarters  in  1891.  As  the  title  signi- 
fies, the  principal  purpose  of  the  Society  is 
to  foster  geographical  study  in  Peru,  though 
its  scope  is  broad  and  liberal,  and  the  quar- 
teriy  review  not  only  contains  articles  on 
archaeological  geography,  statistics,  and  cli- 
matology but  also  the  texts  of  conferences 
given  in  the  hall  of  the  society  on  scientific 

topics  of  general  interest.    The  society  is  a  dependency  of  the  Foreign  Office  and  is  under 
the  protection  of  the  government.     Dr.  Eulogio  Delgado,  the  president,  is  a  recognized 


THE  CHARMER.      BY  ABELARDO  ALVAREZ  CALDERON. 


228 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


autliority  on  the  geography  of  Peru,  and  under  his  administration  the  society  has  aciiieved 
its  present  importance  and  prestige.    The  secretary,  Dr.  Scipion  Llona,  lias  made  interesting 

studies  in  archaeological  geography  and  Incaic 
history,  and  the  sub-secretary,  Don  Carlos  Bach- 
man,  is  the  author  of  the  best  existing  history 
of  the  political  demarcation  of  Peru.  On  the 
membership  roll,  which  contains  three  hundred 
and  thirty-five  names  of  active  members,  in  ad- 
dition to  honorary  and  corresponding  associates, 
are  some  of  the  most  illustrious  scholars  of  Peru, 
and  the  library  of  the  society  is  constantly  en- 
riched by  the  acquisition  of  valuable  works. 
Don  Alejandro  Garland,  a  prominent  member  of 
the  Geographic  Society,  recently  published  an 
important  book  on  his  country,  Peru  in  1906, 
and,  from  time  to  time,  articles,  pamphlets,  and 
larger  volumes  are  issued  by  the  society  or  its 
members,  which  add  to  historic  and  descriptive 
literature. 

The  progress  of  the  press  in  Peru  has  been 
most  notable  during  the  past  few  years.  El 
Comercio,  which  has  been  a  faithful  chronicler  of 
the  political  and  social  events  of  the  country  for 
nearly  three-quarters  of  a  century,  still  stands  at 
the  head  as  a  representative  of  Peruvian  jour- 
nalistic ethics  and  enterprise.  The  same  policy 
which  made  the  paper  the  exponent  of  liberty 
half  a  century  ago, — when  it  fought  a  noble 
campaign  in  favor  of  the  abolition  of  slavery,  first 
of  the  negroes  and  later  of  the  Indians, — makes 
it  to-day  the  leader  in  promoting  the  highest  prin- 
ciples of  humanity,  advocating  the  most  necessary 
reforms,  and  encouraging  the  best  citizenship.  Modern  methods  are  employed  in  its  exten- 
sive news  service  and  the  latest  material  improvements  have  been  inaugurated  in  every 
department.  The  proprietor  and  editor-in-chief  of  El  Comercio,  Don  Jose  Antonio  Miro 
Quesada,  is  the  Nestor  of  journalism  in  Peru  and  is  esteemed  as  the  exponent  of  its  most 
worthy  ideals.  The  press  of  the  republic  is  represented  by  about  two  hundred  newspapers, 
the  principal  dailies  being  El  Comercio,  El  Diario,  and  La  Prensa  of  Lima;  La  Bolsa  and 
El  Deber  of  Arequipa;  El  Comercio  and  El  Sol  of  Cuzco;  La  Ra{6n  and  La  Iiidii stria  of 
Trujillo;  though  every  city  and  town  has  its  newspaper,  and  in  the  larger  centres  an 


UNE   PARISIENNE.      BY  ALBERT   LYNCH. 


f 


THE  N/ITIOhlAL   LIBRARY— LITERATURE  AND  ART  229 

illustrated  weekly  is  also  issued.  Many  of  the  leading  editors  and  journalists  are  prominent 
in  politics  and  hold  important  offices  in  the  government.  Dr.  Felix  Castro,  the  owner  and 
editor  of  El  Comercio,  in  Cuzco,  was  secretary  of  the  presidency  in  the  administration  of 
President  Serapio  Calderon  and  served  his  country  as  propagandist  in  the  United  States, 
where  his  journalistic  talents  were  of  great  value  in  advancing  his  mission  through  the  hlew 
York  Herald,  Sun,  and  other  dailies. 

In  painting  and  music,  as  well  as  in  literature,  Peru  has  an  honored  place  among  Amer- 
ican nations,  though  it  is  generally  the  fashion  in  Peru,  as  in  the  United  States,  to  maintain 
that  only  in  Europe  are  great  masterpieces  painted,  and  that  home  talent  cannot  achieve  the 
results  possible  in  the  "atmosphere"  of  the  art  centres  of  Paris,  London,  and  Rome.  Many 
of  Peru's  greatest  artists  have  their  permanent  place  of  residence  abroad,  and  in  the  art 
exhibitions,  their  names  appear  among  those  of  the  most  successful  painters.  This  was  true 
half  a  century  ago,  when  one  of  the  greatest  painters  of  his  day  was  a  Peruvian,  Don  Ignacio 
Merino,  born  in  Piura  and  sent  to  Paris  to  study  art  under  Monvoisin  and  Delacroix.  In  the 
years  1869  and  1870  he  won  the  highest  honors  of  the  Salon,  his  famous  work,  Columbus 
before  the  University  of  SaLimanca,  being  among  the  noted  modern  masterpieces.  The  l/en- 
geance  of  Cornaro,  Felipe  II.  Dying,  The  Friar  Painter,  and  Cervantes  Reading  Qjiixote  are 
well  known  to  connoisseurs  and  possess  superior  merit.  The  illustrious  painter  died  in 
Paris  and  was  buried  in  Pere  la  Chaise.  He  bequeathed  his  paintings  to  the  city  of  Lima 
and  they  are  now  in  the  gallery  of  the  Historical  Museum.  In  the  museum  also  hangs  the 
masterpiece  of  Luis  Montero,  another  Piura  artist,  who  was  educated  in  Italy  and  studied 
under  Fortuny.  It  is  entitled  The  Funeral  of  Atahuallpa  and  is  notable  for  the  contrasts  of 
stillness  and  movement,  though  the  Indians  are  too  dark  in  color  and  the  women  too  Euro- 
pean in  type  to  give  a  faithful  idea  of  the  subject.  In  the  gallery  of  the  museum  are  historical 
paintings  by  Francisco  Esteban  de  Ingunza  and  other  noted  Peruvian  artists. 

Don  Luis  Bacaflor  is  esteemed  one  of  the  greatest  Peruvian  painters  of  the  present  day. 
His  Head  of  an  Old  Man  is  a  celebrated  study  painted  by  him  several  years  ago,  and  he  is 
the  author  of  many  other  well  known  pictures.  His  home  is  in  Paris,  where  he  counts 
among  his  friends  the  leading  artists  of  Europe.  The  story  of  Bacafldr's  early  struggles  and 
his  sturdy  patriotism  give  a  peculiar  interest  to  his  later  successes.  When  a  mere  youth,  he 
went  to  Chile  to  study  his  beloved  art,  giving  evidences  of  the  genius  which  has  since 
developed  in  all  its  strength.  He  won  the  Prix  de  Rome,  in  recognition  of  which  the  Chilean 
government  offered  to  send  the  aspiring  young  painter  to  Europe,  that  he  might  have  the 
advantage  of  the  best  training  of  foreign  masters.  With  what  a  thrill  of  delight  must  the 
student  have  seen  such  a  prospect  open  before  him !  But, — it  was  impossible  to  accept 
the  terms,  which  demanded  that  he  renounce  his  beloved  Peru  and  become  a  Chilean 
citizen.  Not  a  moment  did  the  patriotic  young  artist  hesitate,  sending  at  once  the  ahswer 
which  was  apparently  to  cut  him  off  from  a  brilliant  career  and  the  achievement  of  his 
dearest  ambition.  His  reward  has  been  a  noble  one.  The  Peruvian  government  in  recog- 
nition of  its  gifted  and  patriotic  young  citizen,  sent  him  to  study  under  its  own  auspices,  and 


2^0 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


the  result  has  been  an  honor  to  the  nation.  Albert  Lynch,  also  a  Peruvian,  a  native  of 
Trujillo,  is  among  the  famous  painters  at  the  French  capital.  Francisco  Lazo,  Daniel  Her- 
nandez, of  Huancavelica,  Herminio  Arias,  the  Countess  de  Beon,  Alberto  Pareja  de  Mijares, 
and  Juan  Lipiani  are  names  well  known  in  the  art  circles  of  Europe,  especially  in  Rome  and 
Paris,  where  their  pictures  have  been  exhibited  in  the  salons.  Abelardo  Alvarez  Calderon, 
who  has  won  fame  as  an  illustrator,  lives  in  London.  There  are  still  a  few  artists  who  have 
remained  in  their  own  country,  and  the  illustrative  art,  as  seen  in  the  magazines,  gives  evidence 
of  superior  talent.  Don  Miguel  Miro  Quesada  is  one  of  the  most  gifted  of  the  younger  genera- 
tion, his  clever  sketches  and  caricatures  being  an  attractive  feature  of  the  current  periodicals. 

The  painter,  Francisco  Lazo,  was  both  litterateur  and  artist,  and  the  author  of  the  Peruvian 
national  hymn,  Bernardo  Alcedo,  wrote  a  book  on  the  elemental  philosophy  of  music,  besides 
composing  the  music  of  the  hymn  and  a  number  of  masses,  a  Miserere,  and  other  works. 
The  composer  Valleriestra,  devotes  all  his  leisure  to  musical  study.  Peru  has  a  celebrated 
cantatrice,  Sefiorita  Margarita  Alvarez  de  Rocafuerte,  who  has  won  fame  in  the  European 
capitals  by  her  divine  voice  and  the  sympathy  and  grace  with  which  she  interprets  the 
masters  of  music.  She  is  young,  beautiful,  and  of  artistic  temperament,  and  wins  her 
audience  from  the  first  moment.  Not  long  ago,  this  charming  songbird  of  the  Andes 
received  the  gold  medal  in  a  musical  contest  in  the  Royal  Academy  of  London. 

The  Philharmonic  Societies  of  Lima  and  Arequipa  are  flourishing  organizations,  whose 
purpose  is  the  encouragement  of  musical  art.  The  Arequipa  society  is  older  and  of  larger 
membership  than  the  Philharmonic  of  the  capital,  which  was  inaugurated  less  than  a  year 
ago.  The  Lima  society  is  composed  of  patrons  and  active  members,  the  former  contributing 
funds  for  the  maintenance  of  the  society,  while  the  latter  assist  in  classes  and  take  part  in 
the  musical  concerts  that  are  given  under  its  direction. 


DOLCE    FAR    NIENTE        BY    DANIEL    HERNANDEZ. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY] 

OF 


o 
u 

< 


< 


o 


> 


CHAPTER  XV 


THE   OLDEST   UNIVERSITY   IN    AMERICA— MODERN   SCHOOLS' OF   PERU 


pOUNDED  in  15^1,  nearly  a  hundred 
years  before  Harvard  received  its 
charter,  the  University  of  San  Marcos 
is  the  oldest  educational  institution  of 
America.  Under  the  royal  seal  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  and  Queen  Joana, 
his  mother,  it  was  established  in  the  City 
of  the  Kings  soon  after  the  inauguration 
of  the  viceroyalty,  and  was  conceded  all 
the  honors  and  privileges  enjoyed  by  the 
University  of  Salamanca,  at  that  time 
the  most  celebrated  seat  of  learning  in 
Europe.  The  royal  grant  was  issued  to 
the  priors  of  the  Dominican  order,  and  the 
original  lecture  halls  were  installed  in. the 
chief  monastery  of  "  Santo  Domingo,"  in 
Lima.  Twenty  years  later.  King  Philip  II. 
ordered  the  secularization  of  the  uni- 
versity and  its  separation  from  the 
Dominican  convent.  The  cathedral  was 
then  chosen  as  the  hall  for  literary  func- 
tions, and  in  one  of  its  chapels,  consecrated 
to  the  Virgin  known  as  La  Antigua,  and  especially  venerated  from  that  time  by  the  univer- 
sity, the  degrees  of  scholarship  were  conferred.  This  chapel  is  of  especial  interest  because 
of  its  history,  some  of  the  most  impressive  ceremonies  of  the  viceregal  period  having  taken 
place  here.  The  conferring  of  degrees  in  the  early  history  of  the  university  was  attended 
with  elaborate  religious  formalities,  an  important  feature  being  the  celebration  of  a  mass 

233 


DR.  LUIS  F.  VILLARAN.  RECTOR  OF  THE   UNIVERSITY  OF 
SAN   MARCOS. 


234  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE^V  PERU 

of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  preparation  for  the  event.  After  this  solemn  sacrament,  the  candidate 
passed  through  two  days'  examination,  chiefly  of  a  religious  character.  If  successful,  he 
was  then  led  to  the  chapel  of  the  Virgin,  accompanied  by  his  fellow-students  and  the 
doctors  of  the  faculties,  and  was  obliged  to  mal<e  the  customary  profession  of  faith,  the  same 
as  that  adopted  by  the  University  of  Paris  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  which 
required  the  candidate  to  pledge  his  loyalty  to  the  mystery  of  the  Immaculate  Conception. 
The  degree  of  doctor  was  then  conferred  by  the  dean,  who  represented  both  the  royal  and 
the  pontifical  authority;  and  as  soon  as  this  part  of  the  ceremony  was  concluded  the  sponsor 
decorated  the  new  doctor  with  the  insignia  of  his  class. 

In  I  ^72,  Don  Caspar  Meneses,  a  scholar  of  note,  who  held  the  degrees  of  Doctor  of 
Medicine  and  Master  of  Arts,  was  appointed  the  first  rector  of  the  university.  He  was  well 
fitted,  by  his  piety  and  learning,  to  promote  the  education  of  the  colony  in  accordance  with 
the  ideals  that  prevailed  during  that  early  period.  The  independent  career  of  the  University 
of  San  Marcos  began  in  1574,  the  name  being  chosen  by  lot  from  a  list  of  saints'  appella- 
tives; and  on  the  31st  of  December  of  that  year  the  first  reunion  was  celebrated  in  a 
building  purchased  by  the  faculty.  Two  years  later,  during  the  reign  of  the  Viceroy  Toledo, 
an  edifice  was  constructed  for  the  university,  in  the  Plaza  de  la  Constitucion,  which  was 
occupied  by  its  classes  until  1770,  when,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  the  committee 
charged  with  the  final  distribution  of  their  schools  made  the  college  of  San  Carlos  the 
university  building,  promoting  the  two  flourishing  Jesuit  schools  of  San  Carlos  and,  later, 
San  Felipe,  to  equal  dignity  and  privileges  with  the  classes  of  San  Marcos.  The  college  of 
La  Libertad  was  accorded  the  same  advancement  in  1826.  La  Libertad  was  a  college  for 
Indian  princes,  and  had  been  called  Del  Principe  during  the  vicero^alty.  An  interesting 
chronicler  of  those  days  gives  a  charming  description  of  the  collegians  of  San  Carlos,  Del 
Principe,  Santo  Toribio,  and  other  schools.  The  students  of  San  Carlos  were  distinguished 
by  their  black  dress,  cocked  hats,  and  dress  swords;  the  young  caciques  of  Del  Principe 
wore  a  full  suit  of  green  with  a  crimson  shoulder  ribbon  and  a  cocked  hat;  and  the  Santo 
Toribio  collegians  adopted  the  almond-colored  opa,  a  gown  made  like  a  poncho,  wide  at  the 
bottom,  with  which  a  pale  blue  scarf  was  worn,  and  a  square  bonnet  of  black  cloth. 

The  curriculum  of  a  university  in  the  sixteenth  century  was  governed  by  the  predomi- 
nating influence  in  intellectual  culture,  as  it  is  to-day.  In  Spain,  even  more  than  in  other 
countries  of  Europe,  this  influence  was  essentially  religious  in  character.  Theology  was  the 
most  important  branch  of  study,  and  law  and  medicine  were  taught  from  textbooks  which 
read  more  like  religious  treatises  than  scientific  compendiums  of  knowledge.  In  the 
University  of  Lima,  the  plan  of  studies  included  three  classes  daily  in  theology,  three  in 
law,  two  in  canonical  law,  two  in  medicine,  two  in  grammar,  and  one  in  native  languages, 
the  last  being  considered  necessary  for  the  propagation  of  the  faith  among  the  Indians. 
During  the  viceroyalty,  the  University  of  San  Marcos  was  an  exclusively  aristocratic 
institution,  and  its  chief  mission  was  to  educate  the  nobility  and  the  clergy,  the  latter 
ranking  in  the  same  class  as  the  highest  aristocracy.    The  candidate  for  a  degree  had  to 


THE  OLDEST  UN/I/ERS/TY— MODERN  SCHOOLS 


2J? 


meet  such  enormous  expenses  that  its  advantages  were  within  the  reach  of  only  a  favored 
few.  He  was  obliged  to  give  a  sum  of  money  to  each  doctor  of  his  faculty  and  to  those  of 
all  the  other  faculties,  a  larger  sum  to  the  rector  and  further  amounts  to  the  dean  of  his 
faculty,  the  sponsors  in  the  ceremony,  and  other  ministering  officials.  If  a  layman,  he  was 
expected  to  present  his  fellow-graduates  with  a  silk  cap,  the  biretta  taking  its  place  in  the 
case  of  a  sacerdote.  "  Four  pounds  of  food  and  six  hens  "  are  named  as  the  gifts  which 
each  colleague  must  receive  from  the  new  doctor.  These  expenses  amounted  to  large 
sums  in  the  aggregate,  and  were  greatly  increased  by  the  cost  of  the  festivities  with  which 
such  an  event  was  celebrated.  It  was  the  custom  for  the  graduate  to  give  a  bull  fight  in 
the  pla^a,  always  a  costly  entertainment;  and  he  must  have  a  sumptuous  dinner,  at  which 
his  friends  would  toast  the  successful  scholar  and  felicitate  him  in  poetical  periods  and 
oratorical  flights.  The  most  modest  cost  never  went  below  ten  thousand  dollars  in  an 
epoch  when  that  sum  meant  many  times  the  wealth  it  does  to-day;  and  stories  are  related 
of  brilliant  festivities  in  which  the  reckless  scions  of  wealthy  noble  houses  spent  sums  that 
call  to  mind  the  follies  of  millionaire  spendthrifts  of  the  present  time.  Toward  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century  a  resolution  was  passed  by  the  directors,  limiting  the  expense  to  a 
deposit  of  two  thousand  dollars  in  the  treasury  of  the  university,  which  freed  the  graduate 
from  furtlier  responsibilities.  This  resolution  continued  in  force  until  1870,  when  the  sum 
was  reduced  to  eight  hundred  dollars ;  subsequent  reductions  have  brought  it  down  to  the 


CLOISTLR   OF    THE   NATIONAL   COLLEGt   OT   GL'ADALLTt,   LIMA. 


present  cost,  which  is  fifty  soles  for  the  bachelor's  degree  and  one  hundred  soles  for  that  of 
doctor.    Students  who  have  excelled  in  their  classes,  and  have  taken  the  highest  prizes. 


236 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEPV  PERU 


called  contentas,  are  exempt  from  the  payment  of  any  dues.    The  purpose  of  the  contenta 
is  to  enable  young  men  of  energy  and  ambition,  but  with  small  means,  to  profit  by  the 

advantages  of  a  liberal  education. 
The  Faculty  of  Letters  gives  free 
scholarships  to  its  most  successful 
students  and  exempts  from  the  pay- 
ment of  dues  all  who  have  obtained 
a  prize  in  any  course  of  study. 

The  University  of  San  Marcos  is 
to-day  a  thoroughly  modern  institu- 
tion, representative  of  the  liberal  spirit 
of  progress  which  pervades  all  classes 
in  Peru, — a  country  that  has  passed 
through  greater  and  more  vital  changes 
than  fall  to  the  lot  of  most  nations. 
What  transformations  have  been 
wrought  in  education  in  Peru  since 
the  amauttas  imparted  knowledge  to 
the  sous  of  the  .Sun,  holding  its  pre- 
cious truths  too  sacred  to  be  com- 
municated to  any  but  noble  princes! 
The  attitude  of  the  Spanish  teachers 
was  less  openly  restrictive,  though,  in 
effect,  the  system  of  education  was 
little  broader  than  it  had  been  under 
the  monarchs  of  Cuzco.  The  lessons 
of  the  temple  were  replaced  by  those  of  the  convent,  and  the  benefits  of  knowledge  were 
still  chiefly  confined  to  the  nobility.  With  the  evolution  of  ideas  that  modern  civilization 
encouraged,  conditions  gradually  improved  during  nearly  three  hundred  years  of  Spanish 
rule,  and  the  eighteenth  century  witnessed  the  phenomenon  of  independent  thought,  the 
awakening  of  the  individual  in  society.  With  the  inauguration  of  the  republic,  the  progress 
of  Peru  entered  a  new  channel,  and  though,  at  first,  the  stream  of  liberal  ideas  had  to  force 
a  narrow  passage  between  walls  of  tradition,  to  surmount  rocks  and  boulders  of  obstructing 
prejudice,  carrying  in  its  flow  an  accumulated  driftwood  of  sentiment  from  the  ancient 
groves  of  worship,  yet  its  course  has  been  always  toward  the  sea  of  universal  good,  and  its 
channel,  deepened  and  widened  by  the  growing  force  of  the  current,  now  forms  the  bed  of 
a  mighty  tide  of  worthy  endeavor. 

The  university  leads  in  promoting  the  interests  of  a  broad  and  liberal  education  in  Peru, 
and,  under  the  present  administration,  important  reforms  have  been  introduced,  in  accord 
with  the  progressive  ideals  of  the  twentieth  century.    The  government  of  the  university  is 


DR.  MANUEL   BARRIOS.  DEAN  OF  THE   FACULTY  OF  MEDICINE.  LIMA. 


THE  OLDEST  UN Il/ERSITY— MODERN  SCHOOLS 


2J7 


ill  the  hands  of  a  council,  composed  of  the  rector,  vice-rector,  and  secretary  of  the  institu- 
tion, with  tlie  dean  and  a  delegate  from  each  of  the  faculties.  It  is  practically  independent 
in  the  conduct  of  its  affairs,  the  state  having  only  the  economic  interest  which  rests  on  a 
pecuniary  grant,  and  even  this  is  disposed  of  according  to  the  discretion  of  the  University 
Council.  Although  all  education  in  Peru  is  under  the  immediate  protection  and  solicitude  of 
the  supreme  government,  the  intervention  of  the  executive  is  used  only  for  the  improve- 
ment of  educational  advantages  and  the  extension  of  public  instruction,  in  all  that  relates 
to  the  internal  regime  of  the  university,  the  rector  and  his  advisers  constitute  the  supreme 
authority.  Dr.  Don  Luis  F.  Villaran  succeeded  the  lamented  Dr.  Francisco  Garcia  Calderon 
as  head  of  the  university  in  190^,  and  has  continued  the  progressive  methods  of  that  learned 
statesman.    The  past  three  years  have  been  marked  by  several  important  reforms. 

The  closing  ceremonies  of  the  university  year  of  1907  took  place  March  i^,  1908,  instead 
of  the  24th  of  December,  1907,  in  consequence  of  tiie  students  having  been  called  away 
in  November  for  military  manoeuvres,  obedient  to  the  new  law  of  forced  military  service. 
The  occasion  was  one  of  solemn  ceremony.  President  Pardo  attending,  with  his  cabinet.  The 
address  of  the  rector  included  a  resume  of  the  year's  events  in  the  university,  showing  that 
its  influence  and  usefulness  had  been  increased,  and  notable  advancement  made  in  its 
affairs.  The  prestige  of  the  university  was  enhanced  last  year  through  the  brilliant  record 
of  its  delegates  at  the  congress  of  students  in  Montevideo,  when  this  institution  was  shown 
to  be  in  the  first  rank  among  Spanish-American  institutions  in  culture  and  progress. 

The  curriculum  of  studies  is  under  the  direction  of  six  faculties :  Jurisprudence,  which 
confers  the  degree  of  lawyers  and  ministers  on  the  completion  of  a  five  years'  course,  the  dean 
of  the  faculty  being 
Dr.  Lizardo  Alza- 
mora ;  Medicine, 
granting  the  title 
of  "  Physician  and 
Surgeon  "  to  grad- 
uates who  com- 
plete its  six  years' 
course.  Dr.  Manuel 
Barrios,  a  states- 
man of  distinction, 
now  president  of 
the  Senate,  being 
dean  of  this  fac- 
ulty; and  the  Facul- 


THE    FACULTY  OF    MEDICINE.  LIMA. 


ties  of  Theology, 

Mathematics  and  Physical  and  Natural  Sciences,  Philosophy,  Letters  and  Administrative  and 

Political  Economy,  which  do  not  confer  professional  degrees.     In  order  to  be  eligible  to  the 


238 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


Faculty  of  Medicine,  the  student  must  have  completed  two  years  of  the  course  in  Natural 
Science  and  the  obligatory  course  of  the  first  and  second  years  of  Mathematical  Science  and 

Physics.  The  Faculty  of  Letters, 
presided  over  by  the  dean.  Dr. 
Javier  Prado  y  Ugarteche,  renders 
especial  services  and  performs 
double  duty  by  preparing  students 
to  follow  the  career  of  the  law  and 
training  professors  to  teach  in  the 
higher  public  schools  and  colleges. 
It  is  thus  the  meeting  ground  be- 
tween the  university  and  the  pri- 
mary school,  its  graduates  being 
afterward  represented  both  in  the 
highest  classes  of  the  Faculty  of 
Jurisprudence  and  among  superin- 
tendents of  primary  schools.  Only 
recently  a  law  was  introduced  in 
the  Senate  through  the  efforts  of 
university  professors,  to  establish 
complementary  courses  in  the  Fac- 
ulties of  Letters  and  Sciences  for 
the  special  training  of  professors 
to  direct  the  national  colleges  of 
secondary  instruction.  The  law 
makes  professorship  a  public  career 
sufficiently  attractive  to  induce  stu- 
dents of  ability  to  devote  themselves 
exclusively  to  this  pursuit.  A  four  years'  term  of  preparation  is  required,  practical  teaching 
in  the  College  of  Guadalupe  being  included  in  the  last  two  years'  course. 

The  Faculty  of  Administrative  and  Political  Economy,  which,  as  elsewhere  stated,  was 
founded  by  President  Manuel  Pardo,  was  first  organized  by  the  eminent  scholar.  Dr.  Pradier 
Fodere.  The  object  of  this  faculty  is  to  give  special  instruction  to  those  who  are  preparing 
to  follow  a  diplomatic  career  or  to  direct  administrative  offices.  The  degree  of  doctor  is 
conferred  after  a  three  years'  course  in  constitutional,  international,  administrative,  diplomatic 
and  maritime  law,  political  economy,  economical  legislation  of  Peru,  science  of  finance, 
financial  legislation  of  Peru,  and  statistics.  The  present  dean  of  the  faculty  is  Dr.  Ramon 
Ribeyro,  a  noted  authority  on  international  affairs  and  a  member  of  the  supreme  court  of 
justice.  The  Faculty  of  Theology  gives  a  theological  education,  the  course  covering  six 
years.    In  the  Faculty  of  Sciences,  the  student  is  allowed  to  enter  the  School  of  Engineers 


DR    JAVIER   PRADO  Y  UGARTECHE,  DEAN  OF  THE   LITERARY 
FACULTY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  SAN   MARCOS. 


THE  OLDEST  UNI l^ERS /TV— MODERN  SCHOOLS 


2J9 


after  completing  the  obligatory  courses  of  the  first  and  second  years  of  mathematical 
sciences  and  physics.  The  University  of  Lima  is  destined  to  achieve  greater  distinction 
during  the  present  century  through  its  liberal  and  democratic  ideals  than  was  gained  in  the 
three  centuries  of  existence  under  the  influence  of  aristocratic  exclusiveness.  The  new 
edifice  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  is  one  of  the  signs  of  material  progress  evident  in  many 
features  of  the  institution.  A  University  Review  is  published  monthly,  replacing  the  annual 
volume  founded  in  1862  as  the  Annals  of  the  University.  Although  the  ancient  University 
of  San  Marcos  stands  at  the  head  of  the  educational  institutions  of  Peru,  the  universities  of 
Arequipa,  Cuzco,  and  Trujillo  are  important  centres  of  learning,  having  Faculties  of  Juris- 
prudence, Literature,  and  Political  and  Natural  Sciences.  The  rector  of  the  University  of 
Arequipa,  Dr.  Jorge  Polar,  was  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  during  the  first  two  years 
of  President  Pardo's  administration,  and  is  an  eminent  authority  on  educational  matters. 
Dr.  Eliseo  Araujo,  rector  of  Cuzco  University,  is  also  a  distinguished  statesman  as  well  as 
an  experienced  educator.  Trujillo  University  is  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Pedro  M.  Urefia, 
who  succeeded  Dr.  Carlos  Washburn  as  rector,  when  that  statesman  was  called  to  the 
cabinet  of  President  Pardo. 

The  universities,  which  represent  the  most  revered  traditions  of  education  and  reflect 
the  highest  culture  of  the  nation,  are  supplemented  by  a  number  of  colleges  and  schools  of 


THE   NATIONAL  SCHOOL  OF  AGRICULTURE.  LIMA. 


special  instruction  for  pupils  who,  after  graduating  from  the  primary  and  secondary  schools, 
do  not  enter  on  a  university  career,  but  prefer  to  prepare  for  the  military  service,  to  secure 


240  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

technical  training,  or  to  obtain  a  practical  knowledge  of  engineering,  agriculture,  etc.  The 
School  of  Military  Cadets  at  Chorillos,  the  Naval  School-ships,  the  School  of  Civil  Engineers, 
and  the  National  School  of  Agriculture,  as  well  as  the  flourishing  Technical  School  of 
Arts  and  Trades,  fulfil  these  purposes.  The  School  of  Arts  and  Trades  was  reorganized 
September  24,  190^,  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Pedro  Paulet.  The  school  was  founded 
forty  years  ago,  and  reorganized  in  1871,  when  its  purpose  was  declared  to  be  "the  training 
of  honest  and  capable  mechanics."  Although  the  excellent  work  of  this  school  was 
interrupted  for  some  years  in  consequence  of  the  calamitous  war  of  the  Pacific,  yet  its 
benefits  have  been  so  general  that,  to-day,  the  best  mechanics  on  the  plantations  of  the 
coast  and  in  the  mining  establishments  of  the  sierra  are  graduates  of  its  classes.  These 
schools  are  now  to  be  found  in  all  the  cities  of  the  republic. 

The  mining  interests  of  Peru,  as  well  as  the  peculiar  conditions  that  govern  transporta- 
tion across  its  snow-capped  sierras  and  through  its  canons,  make  the  study  of  engineering 
of  paramount  importance.  The  School  of  Engineers,  under  the  direction  of  an  expert 
Polish  engineer,  Mr.  Eduardo  Habich,  has  for  its  object  the  teaching  of  civil,  industrial,  and 
electrical  engineering,  and  mining.  The  extraordinary  industrial  development  which  Peru 
has  experienced  within  the  past  few  years  made  it  necessary,  in  1 901,  to  include  industrial 
engineering  in  the  course  of  studies,  which  originally  comprised  only  two  sections,  that  of 
electrical  engineering  being  added  in  1903.  Graduates  of  this  school  are  entitled  to  rank  as 
mining,  civil,  and  industrial  engineers,  and  electricians;  land  surveyors  are  also  trained 
here.  The  average  attendance  is  about  two  hundred  pupils.  Training  is  given  in  both 
theory  and  practice,  the  students  making  trips  to  the  mines  of  Cerro  de  Pasco  and  Yauli  as 
well  as  to  the  factories,  smelters,  and  electrical  plants  of  these  establishments.  The  school 
has  complete  laboratories  as  well  as  collections  of  specimens  for  the  study  of  mineralogy, 
geology,  and  other  subjects  related  to  the  course.  Agricultural  training  is  furnished  in  a 
school  organized  for  the  purpose  and  directed  by  Belgian  professors.  The  instruction 
afforded  is  technical  and  of  the  greatest  practical  value,  including  all  that  pertains  to  the 
administration  and  cultivation  of  a  landed  estate. 

The  greatest  evidence  of  educational  progress  in  Peru  is  afforded  by  the  report  6i  the 
past  school  year,  especially  as  regards  primary  instruction.  According  to  the  new  law  'of 
December  ^,  190^,  primary  instruction  was  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  municipalities  and 
made  subject  to  the  central  government,  and  a  special  fund  for  educational  purposes  was 
created  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  bound  to  go  on  increasing  with  the  growth  of  population 
and  the  development  of  wealth.  Attendance  at  school  was  not  only  made  obligatory  but 
absolutely  gratuitous,  schoolbooks,  paper,  etc.,  being  provided  free  of  charge  to  the  pupil. 
The  name  of  President  Jose  Pardo  will  go  down  to  posterity  with  that  of  his  illustrious 
father,  as  the  friend  of  the  helpless  and  the  protector  of  the  humble,  inspired  by  the  true 
patriotism  which  seeks  the  ennoblement  and  aggrandizement  of  the  State  by  raising  to  the 
highest  mental  and  moral  standard  every  citizen,  from  the  proletaire  to  the  plutocrat. 
The  reform  of  1875  sought  to  extend  to  the  poorest  class  the  blessings  of  education.     But 


THE  OLDEST  UNI l/ERSITY— MODERN  SCHOOLS 


241 


the  law  was  impeded  in  its  beneficent  action  by  inadequate  funds  and  lack  of  unity 
in  purpose.  So  long  as  public  instruction  remained  under  municipal  government,  its 
advantages  could  not  be  uniform  or  satisfactory.  Political  changes,  the  fluctuation  of 
rents,  and  other  causes  contributed  to  make  the  support  of  municipal  schools  unsettled 
and  dependent.  A  new  law,  passed  in  1901,  improved  conditions  by  the  creation  of 
a  central  Directorate  of  Primary  Instruction;  but  the  efforts  of  this  body  were  handi- 
capped because  the  local  Councils  and  Commissions  acting  under  its  authority  repre- 
sented municipal  interests  conflicting  with  its  purposes.  Complete  centralization  was 
the  only  way  to  secure  the  successful  establishment  of  the  educational  system  on  a 
basis  that  would  ensure  permanent  and  increasing  progress,  and  elevate  the  national 
standard  of  culture. 

In  his  programme  four  years  ago.  President  Pardo  set  his  government  the  noble  task 
of  raising  the  Indian  out  of  his  apathetic  and  ignorant  condition  and  making  him  an  active 
and  conscious  factor  in  citizenship,  declaring  this  to  be  a  necessity  as  urgent  as  the  building 
of  railways,  the  establishment  of  a  fixed  currency,  or  any  of  the  reforms  that  have  con- 
tributed to  the  prosperity  of  the  country.  To  stimulate  a  sense  of  individual  responsibility 
and  worthy  ambition  in  a  race  that  for  centuries  has  lived  only  to  obey, — under  the  Incas, 


THE  SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND  TRADES.  LIMA. 


the  Curaca;  under  the  Spaniards,  the  priest;  under  the  republic,  the  provincial  governors 
and  the  proprietors  of  estates  on  which  they  are  employed — is  an  undertaking  that  calls 


242 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEM^  PERU 


for  tremendous  patience,  tact,  and  courage.  President  Pardo  believes  tliat  no  effort  should 
be  considered  too  great  which  will  accomplish  this  noble  task. 

A  few  educated  Indians,  descendants  of  the  Inca  nobility,  have  aided  the  government 
in  its  purpose  by  trying  to  teach  their  benighted  people  the  meaning  of  freedom  and  to 

instil  in  them  an 
appreciation  of 
personal  rights. 
Phoccohuanca, 
who  bears  the 
Christian  name 
of  Carlos  Por- 
tilla,  a  pure  In- 
dian of  Puno,  has 
proved  himself  a 
worthy  descend- 
ant of  the  great 
Manco-Ccapac  by 
his  ambition,  en- 
ergy, and  loyalty 
to  his  race.  His 
story  is  not  un- 
like that  of  other 
self-made  men.  A 
thirst  for  knowl- 
edge  made   him 

leave  his  native  town  when  a  mere  child  to  seek  an  education  in  the  capital.  From  town 
to  town  he  trudged,  working  at  anything  that  offered  him  a  chance  to  gain  a  few  pennies 
out  of  which  a  little  was  always  put  aside  for  the  purchase  of  books  and  for  tuition.  He 
was  intelligent,  hard-working,  patient,  and  economical,  and  succeeded  in  getting  together 
the  requisite  funds  for  his  education,  which  was  often  interrupted  by  "hard  times,"  but 
was  always  kept  in  mind  as  the  goal  of  his  efforts.  Now,  at  twenty-two  years  of  age, 
he  holds  a  teacher's  certificate,  with  recommendations  from  several  well-known  educators 
of  Peru,  testifying  to  his  "  aptitude,  morality,  and  diligence  ";  as  a  preceptor  in  the  correc- 
tional school  for  boys,  in  Lima,  his  work  has  been  eminently  satisfactory.  Another  Indian 
is  the  editor  and  proprietor  of  a  newspaper  called  El  Indio,  which  bears  the  subtitle  of 
"Defender  of  the  social  interests  of  the  native  race." 

The  new  law  governing  primary  education  has  already  produced  remarkable  results. 
The  number  of  schools  has  increased  from  one  thousand  four  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  under  the  support  of  the  municipalities  in  1905"  to  two  thousand  five  hundred  at 
present  under  the  control  of  the  central  government;  the  staff  of  teachers  that  numbered 


THE  SCHOOL  OF   ENGINKERS,  LIMA. 


THE  OLDEST  UNiyERSITY— MODERN  SCHOOLS  24 j 

one  thousand  six  hundred  and  fifty-seven  before  the  change  of  educational  administration 
now  comprises  three  tliousand  and  twenty  under  state  direction ;  and  the  pupils'  roll  has 
swelled  from  one  hundred  thousand  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  names  since  the 
adoption  of  the  new  system  two  years  ago.  The  educational  fund  has  been  so  greatly 
increased  that  the  government  has  not  only  been  enabled  to  add  to  the  number  of  schools 
and  teachers,  but  also  to  improve  salaries,  to  provide  instruction  for  a  greater  number  of 
pupils,  to  build  and  repair  school-houses,  acquire  new  and  modern  pedagogical  materials, 
maintain  normal  institutes,  including  one  for  the  instruction  of  teachers  in  manual  training, 
and  send  teachers  to  the  United  States  for  normal  school  training. 

The  General  Directorate  of  primary  instruction  has  the  management  of  all  the  various 
sections  into  which  the  system  is  divided,  including  those  that  relate  to  the  teaching  corps, 
school  materials,  statistics,  accounts,  etc.,  as  well  as  to  Departmental  and  Provincial 
inspectors.  Under  the  new  regime,  the  school  extends  a  beneficent  influence  over  all 
society,  giving  to  the  poorest  child  such  training  as  will  best  prepare  him  for  the  struggle  of 
life.  The  law  provides  for  two  grades  of  primary  instruction,  the  first  being  the  elementary 
school,  in  which  are  taught  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  notions  of  geography  and  history 
in  general  and  as  related  to  Peru,  rudimentary  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  human  body, 
the  making  of  objects  of  common  use,  gymnastics,  and,  especially,  the  essential  notions  of 
morality  and  civic  duty.  This  course  covers  two  years,  after  which  the  pupil  may  enter 
the  second  grade,  taught  in  what  are  known  as  school  groups,  or  scholastic  centres,  where 
three  years  more  are  required  to  complete  the  primary  education,  including  the  learning  of  a 
trade.  Free  night  schools  for  workmen  are  maintained  by  the  Department  of  Fomento, 
and  in  addition  to  the  public  schools  there  are  many  private  institutions  throughout  the 
republic  for  primary  and  secondary  education. 

The  question  of  hygiene  in  the  primary  schools  occupies  the  particular  attention  of  the 
government,  and  a  congress  was  recently  held  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  best  means 
of  protecting  the  health  of  children,  with  a  view  to  improving  the  general  condition  of  the 
race,  and  making  the  rising  generation  robust  and  strong.  In  1907,  a  system  of  sanitary 
and  hygienic  inspection  was  adopted  for  the  schools  of  primary  instruction,  and  the  results, 
so  far,  have  been  most  satisfactory. 

Intermediate  or  secondary  education  has  also  received  special  attention  during  the 
present  administration,  new  colleges  having  been  established  in  several  cities,  in  addition  to 
commercial  and  industrial  schools  in  Iquitos  and  Yurimaguas.  Twenty-five  government 
colleges  provide  secondary  instruction,  three  of  these  being  girls'  schools  in  Trujillo, 
Ayacucho,  and  Cuzco.  Belgian  and  German  professors  have  been  engaged  by  the  govern- 
ment to  conduct  the  courses  of  study  in  the  greater  number  of  these  schools.  In  the 
national  colleges  the  pupil  receives  a  general  education,  the  law  requiring  four  years'  study 
to  complete  this  course.  The .  graduate  is  then-  prepared  either  to  leave  school  with 
sufficient  knowledge  to  serve  the  ordinary  purposes  of  a  business  career,  or  to  enter  the 
Faculty  of  Letters  and  Sciences  in  the  University. 


244 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


In  every  department  of  national  education,  tlie  spirit  of  a  broad  and  liberal  government 
is  to  be  seen,  and  even  in  the  private  schools  and  the  colleges  supported  by  benevolent 
institutions  the  influence  of  modern  reform  is  general  and  unmistakable.  The  most  notable 
tendency  of  education  in  Peru  to-day  is  toward  an  increase  of  knowledge  among  the  poorer 
classes.  Under  the  traditional  system  of  instruction,  now  passing  away,  the  distinctions  of 
caste  were  fostered  and  strengthened,  because  of  the  character  and  scope  of  the  old-time 
school.  The  higher  classes  of  society  received  more  instruction  than  they  applied  in  the 
course  of  their  after  lives,  while  the  lower  classes  were  neglected,  or  taught  only  so  much 
as  tended  to  impress  on  them  their  inferiority  and  the  duties  of  submission.  Under  such 
a  system  it  was  inevitable  that  tyranny  should  flourish,  and  that  the  rich  and  governing 
class  should  abuse  their  power  over  the  poor  and  ignorant.  But  with  the  patriotic  ideas 
which  have  grown  up  and  which  now  stimulate  both  the  governing  and  the  governed,  the 
question  of  education  has  become  one  of  the  national  requirements,  and  its  benefits  are 
enjoyed  by  all  classes.  It  means  the  development  of  the  middle  class,  which  a  great 
economist  calls  "the  bulwark  of  a  nation." 


THE  COLLEGE  OF  LAW,  LIMA 


CHAPTER  XVI 


THt   BENEVOLENT   SOCIETIES   OF   PERU 


/^HARITY  and  kindness  of 
heart  are  qualities  that 
radiate  from  moral  worth  as 
truly  as  learning  and  refine- 
ment reflect  intellectual  supe- 
riority, and  the  benevolent 
institutions  of  a  country  de- 
serve to  be  as  great  a  source 
of  pride  as  its  schools  and 
colleges.  The  establishment 
of  hospitals,  asylums,  and 
other  charitable  organizations 
in  Peru  dates  from  the  time 
of  the  Conquest;  for,  what- 
ever may  have  been  the  evils 
of  colonial  rule,  they  did  not  include  negligence  of  the  duties  of  Christian  charity.  During 
the  period  of  the  viceroyalty,  asylums  for  the  gratuitous  care  of  the  sick  and  destitute  were 
founded  in  Lima  and  other  cities  of  Peru,  the  funds  for  their  maintenance  being  derived 
partly  from  donations,  and  partly  from  the  rents  of  property  set  aside  to  furnish  a  permanent 
and  independent  revenue  for  their  use. 

At  the  time  of  the  Independence,  Lima  had  many  hospitals  under  the  management  of 
religious  brotherhoods.  Belem  and  San  Juan  de  Dios  received  inmates  at  a  fixed  price 
of  one  dollar  a  day;  and  an  English  traveller,  who  was  a  patient  in  the  San  Juan  de  Dios 
hospital  a  century  ago,  has  written  a  very  favorable  description  of  its  cleanliness,  good 
ventilation,  excellent  diet,  and  the  kind  attention  given  to  patients.  The  hospital  of  San 
Andres  had  accommodation  for  six  hundred  invalids  and  capacity  for  twice  that  number^ 

and  was  beautified  by  a  magnificent  garden  of  rare  botanical  value.    Santa  Ana  hospital, 

247 


STREET  SCENE  ON   THE   FEAST   DAY  OF   LA  MERCED,  LIMA. 


248  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

founded  by  an  Indian  princess,  the  Caciqua  Catalina  Huanca,  was  consecrated  to  the  needs 
of  her  own  people.  Two  hospitals,  San  Pedro  de  Alcantara  and  La  Caridad,  were  for 
women  exclusively;  and  the  sick  and  suffering  among  the  negro  population  were  cared 
for  in  the  hospital  of  San  Bartolome.  By  a  law  passed  in  182^,  all  the  establishments 
organized  by  public  charity,  and  at  that  time  in  charge  of  the  convents,  were  placed 
under  the  administration  of  a  Junta  de  Beneficenda,  or  Board  of  Benevolence,  which 
was  later  replaced  by  the  Benevolent  Societies,  under  whose  control  are  all  the  charitable 
institutions  of  the  republic.  There  are  about  fifty  of  these  societies,  each  of  which 
maintains  and  governs  one  or  more  charitable  establishments,  the  annual  expenditure  for 
this  purpose  being  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  pounds  sterling.  Lima  spends  more 
than  half  of  this  amount  in  the  support  of  its  hospitals  and  asylums.  The  revenues 
are  derived  from  grants  of  the  national  government  and  the  departmental  boards,  from 
the  rents  of  the  societies'  various  properties,  from  the  profits  of  the  public  lotteries, — 
established  during  the  viceroyalty,  and,  by  the  decree  of  the  republic,  devoted  to  char- 
itable purposes, — and  from  the  income  derived  from  cemeteries,  which  are  under  the 
administration  of  the  Benevolent  Society.  In  Lima  the  lotteries  provide  a  large  fund  for 
the  purposes  of  charity,  the  annual  income  from  this  source  amounting  to  from  thirty 
thousand  to  forty  thousand  pounds  sterling. 

The  Lima  Benevolent  Society  is  composed  of  a  hundred  members,  from  whose 
number  a  board  of  directors  is  elected  annually,  with  authority  to  appoint  two  inspectors 
for  each  establishment  of  importance;  one  inspector  is  appointed  for  each  minor  organiza- 
tion and  for  the  religious  brotherhoods,  whose  incomes  are  administered  by  the  society, 
the  surplus  of  their  rents,  after  deducting  expenses,  being  applied  to  its  purposes.  The 
president  of  the  board  of  directors  is  the  general  manager  of  the  society,  who  bears  the  title  of 
Director  of  Benevolence.  The  gentle  heart  of  the  Limena  is  quickly  moved  to  pity  by  the 
sight  of  suffering  and  distress,  and  generous  contributions  are  made  to  many  charitable 
institutions  not  included  among  those  of  tlie  society,  though  the  latter  extends  its  benign 
protection  over  all  the  city,  performing  its  noble  task  with  great  efficiency,  through  the  aid 
of  the  pious  Sisters  of  Charity,  who  form  a  devoted  corps  of  nurses  and  guardians  in  its 
hospitals,  asylums,  and  poorhouses.  In  Callao,  Arequipa,  Puno,  Trujillo,  and  Qijamarca,  as 
well  as  in  the  capital,  the  visitor  to  the  institutions  of  charity  meets  these  sweet-faced 
gentle  ministers  of  mercy. 

The  most  important  hospital  of  Lima  was  constructed  soon  after  the  glorious  victory  of 
Callao  in  1866,  when  the  Spaniards  were  driven  from  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  it  was  named, 
in  honor  of  that  event,  the  Hospital  Dos  de  Mayo.  The  Director  of  Benevolence  at  that  time 
was  Don  Manuel  Pardo,  who  planned  the  edifice  in  1868  and  presided  at  the  inauguration 
of  the  hospital  during  his  presidency,  in  1875'.  It  is  a  spacious  and  handsome  building,  and 
the  wards  of  invalids  are  separated  from  the  various  departments  of  hospital  service  by 
beautiful  gardens.  A  thousand  patients  can  be  accommodated  in  the  institution,  though  the 
daily  average  is  about  six  hundred  men.    The  principal  hospital  for  women,  the  Santa  Ana, 


THE  BENEI/OLENT  SOCIETIES  OF  PERU 


249 


is  the  oldest  in  Peru,  having  been  founded  by  the  first  Archbishop  of  Lima,  in  1549. 
A  new  edifice  has  recently  been  constructed  for  the  use  of  the  hospital,  having  the  latest 
modern  conveniences.  The  maternity  ward  occupies  a  separate  site,  and  serves  as  a 
practical  school  for  obstetricians.  The  hospital  of  Santa  Ana  has  a  childrens*  clinic,  and 
a  clinic  of  ophthalmology.  The  new  building  is  fitted  up  with  twelve  separate  wards, 
having  forty  beds  in  each,  and  a  special  section  for  children. 

The  old  hospital  of  San  Bartolome  was  converted  into  a  military  hospital  after  the 
establishment  of  the  republic;  it  affords  accommodation  for  three  hundred  patients,  and  its 
expenses  are  paid  by  the  state,  only  the  administration  of  its  affairs  being  in  charge  of  the 
Benevolent  Society.  There  is  a  special  ward  in  the  military  hospital  for  prisoners  awaiting 
trial.  The  only  conditions  required  of  an  applicant  for  admission  to  the  hospitals  of  the 
Benevolent  Society  are  that  the  illness  shall  be  of  a  common  nature,  and  that  the  poverty  of 


OFFICES  OF  THE   BENEVOLENT  SOCIETY.   LIMA. 


the  applicant  must  be  proved.  The  question  of  nationality  or  religion  is  not  considered. 
The  society  maintains  an  asylum  for  incurable  invalids,  to  which  are  sent  those  cases 
declared  chronic  or  incurable  by  the  attending  physicians. 


2^o  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

The  asylums  maintained  by  the  Benevolent  Society  of  Lima  accomplish  great  good 
among  a  class  that  is  generally  neglected.  The  Orphan  Asylum  has  two  branches,  one  of 
which  is  for  the  care  and  protection  of  foundlings,  and  the  other  for  the  education  of  orphan 
children  of  tender  age.  The  first  is  located  in  a  large  building,  which  has  a  revolving  cradle 
so  arranged  that,  as  soon  as  the  infant  is  placed  in  it,  a  mechanism  carries  the  cradle  inside, 
the  little  one's  identity  being  completely  lost  as  it  passes  from  a  world  that  offered  no 
welcome  to  the  shelter  of  a  home  that  receives  it  as  a  sacred  charge.  About  two  hundred 
children  live  in  the  foundlings'  home,  which  is  provided  with  nurses,  doctors,  and  the  usual 
service  of  a  well-regulated  household.  The  second  branch  of  the  Orphan  Asylum  gives 
practical  instruction  suitable  for  children  who  are  to  earn  their  living  later.  The  boys  are 
taught  some  trade,  the  workshops  of  the  institution  including  those  for  the  instruction  of 
shoemakers,  carpenters,  tailors,  and  printers ;  the  girls,  as  soon  as  old  enough  to  learn,  are 
sent  to  Santa  Teresa  to  be  instructed  in  sewing,  embroidering,  millinery,  and  other  handi- 
work. Near  the  hospital  of  Santa  Teresa  is  located  the  Asylum  of  Santa  Rosa,  supported 
out  of  the  funds  of  the  Benevolent  Society,  supplemented  by  the  amounts  received  from 
the  sale  of  embroideries,  fine  sewing,  artificial  flowers,  and  other  articles  made  by  the 
inmates.  In  the  asylum  of  San  Andres,  which  in  1879  replaced  the  hospital  of  that  name, 
both  boarding  and  day  pupils  are  included  in  the  benefits  of  charity,  the  former  numbering 
about  a  hundred  children,  and  the  latter  three  times  as  many,  of  both  sexes,  between  three 
and  eight  years  of  age.  Instruction  is  given  in  household  work  and  in  other  practical 
subjects,  the  children,  at  the  same  time,  learning  to  read  and  write.  A  creche  has  been 
established  where  infants  may  be  left  during  the  day  in  charge  of  a  corps  of  nurses,  while 
the  mothers  are  at  work. 

The  Instituto  Sevilla  is  one  of  the  most  important  charities  in  Lima,  it  is  named  in 
honor  of  a  philanthropic  Peruvian,  Don  Jose  Sevilla,  who  bequeathed  a  large  sum  to  the 
Benevolent  Society  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  an  asylum  in  which  the  inmates  should 
learn  occupations  suited  to  their  sex.  A  hundred  girls  are  educated  in  this  school  free  of 
charge,  the  period  of  apprenticeship  lasting  five  years.  In  addition  to  those  already  referred 
to,  the  Society  directs  a  number  of  branches,  under  various  names,  dedicated  to  the  needs 
of  the  destitute.  The  "Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,"  the  "Infants'  Shelter,"  the  "Olla 
(stewpan)  of  the  Poor,"  the  "Ruiz  Davila,"  and  others,  not  only  provide  comfort  and 
protection,  but  give  teaching  of  a  pracfical  kind.  For  the  encouragement  of  economy 
and  foresight,  the  society  has  established  a  savings  bank,  with  a  section  for  mortgages,  in 
which  deposits  earn  four  per  cent  per  annum  interest.  The  Lazaretto  is  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Benevolent  Society,  though  in  times  of  epidemic,  the  municipality  contributes 
half  of  the  sum  required  for  expenses.  The  care  of  the  insane  is  one  of  the  charges  of  the 
Benevolent  Society,  and  in  order  to  provide  better  accommodation  for  this  class  of  unfor- 
tunates, a  nafional  asylum  is  being  built  near  Lima,  which  will  receive  applicants  from  all 
parts  of  the  republic.  The  asylum  now  has  about  four  hundred  inmates,  under  the  direction 
of  the  inspector  appointed  by  the  Benevolent  Society  for  this  institution. 


THE  BENEI/OLEMT  SOCIETIES  OF  PERU 


251 


Among  the  important  services  performed  by  the  society  is  that  of  directing  the  burial 
of  the  dead.  Tiie  public  cemetery  of  Lima,  which  covers  an  area  of  twenty  acres,  dates 
from  the  government  of  the  Viceroy  Abascal,  who  first  abolished  the  custom  of  interring 


HOSPITAL   DOS   DE   MAYO,  LIMA. 


the  dead  in  the  church  vaults.  The  present  system  of  burial,  known  as  the  Columbarium 
Romano,  which  consists  of  walls  in  which  niches  are  built  one  above  the  other,  is  familiar 
to  all  travellers  in  Latin  countries.  It  was  necessary  to  overcome  great  prejudice  in  the 
beginning,  a  cemetery  not  being  looked  upon  as  consecrated  ground;  but  the  interment 
there  of  the  Archbishop  of  Lima  in  1808  sufficed  to  inaugurate  the  new  system  successfully. 
The  original  construction  of  the  Pantheon  cost  a  hundred  thousand  dollars.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  notable  in  South  America  for  its  space  and  for  the  number  and  fine  architecture 
of  its  mausoleums.  The  entrance  faces  an  open  circle,  or  pla{oleta,  in  which  stands  a 
marble  column  crowned  by  a  statue  representing  the  Resurrection.  On  one  side  of  the 
Pantheon  is  the  Civil  burial  ground  for  Protestants,  and  on  the  other  side  is  that  reserved 
as  a  last  resting  place  for  the  unbeliever. 

In  addition  to  the  hospitals,  asylums,  and  other  institutions  governed  by  the  Benevolent 
Societies  in  all  the  principal  cities  and  towns,  there  are  numerous  special  charities  supported 
by  the  departmental  and  municipal  authorities  of  the  different  centres,  or  maintained  by 
church  societies  and  private  philanthropy.    The  needs  of  the  unfortunate  receive  increasing 


2J2 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


attention  as  the  public  administration  extends  its  vigilance  throughout  the  republic,  and  to  the 
institutions  already  existing  new  ones  are  constantly  being  added.  The  government  recently 
granted  subsidies  to  the  Benevolent  Societies  of  Moquegua,  Ayacucho,  Huanuco,  Huanca- 
velica,  Huancayo,  Caraz,  Aplao,  and  Yungay.  The  hospitals  of  Tarma  and  Moquegua  have 
been  enlarged  and  improved,  and  in  the  Amazon  port  of  Iquitos  a  new  hospital  is  being 
constructed  according  to  modern  ideas  and  plans.  In  the  increasing  progress  and  develop- 
ment of  Peru,  its  benevolent  charities  have  received  greater  attention  than  ever,  the  moral 
sentiment  of  the  nation  demanding  that  these  institutions  share  in  the  general  blessing 
of  prosperity. 


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MILITARY    HOSPITAL,   LIMA. 


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CHAPTER  XVII 


AREQUIPA— THE   MlSTl— HARVARD   OBSERVATORY 


T' 


TRADITION  says  that  when  Maita-Ccapac 
first  led  his  army  across  the  Apurimac 
River,  some  of  his  soldiers  were  so  enchanted 
by  the  attractions  of  the  country,  especially 
the  picturesque  valley  above  which  the  snowy 
summit  of  the  Misti  glistens  among  the  clouds, 
that  they  asked  the  Inca's  permission  to  re- 
main. "Ari,  Quepay!"  responded  their  lord, 
"Very  well, — Remain  here!"  and  from  this 
exclamation  is  derived  the  name  of  the  beau- 
tiful city  that  now  brightens  the  valley  at  the 
foot  of  the  Misti, — Arequipa.  In  order  to 
appreciate  the  full  beauty  of  the  site  chosen 
as  a  permanent  home  by  the  soldiers  of  Maita- 
Ccapac,  it  is  necessary  to  have  traversed  the 
arid  desert  of  shifting,  crescent-shaped  sand- 
dunes  that  separate  it  from  the  Pacific,  or  to 
have  journeyed  across  the  barren  puna  that 
stretches  out  between  this  fertile  valley  and 
the  farther  slopes  of  the  Cordilleras.  Contrast 
heightens  the  charm  of  the  scene  that  spreads  out  in  matchless  beauty,  as  the  white  city 
appears  in  the  midst  of  its  fresh,  radiant  campina,  and  one  can  appreciate  the  enthusiasm 
with  which  poetic  travellers  have  described  it  as  "a  pearl  in  an  emerald  setting"  and  "a 
dove  in  an  emerald  nest." 

Behind  the  city,  rising  above  the  valley  like  the  walls  of  an  amphitheatre,  are  three 
majestic  peaks,  Pichu-pichu  to  the  east,  Chacchani  to  the  north,  and  the  white-crested  Misti 
in  the  centre;  and  far  in  the  distance,  beyond  the  valley,  the  snowy  summit  of  Coropuna, 


ARCH  AT  THE  ENTRANCE  TO  THE  CATHEDRAL,  AREQUIPA. 


2^6 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


more  than  twenty  thousand  feet  high,  towers  like  a  distant  sentinel  guarding  the  approach 
to  some  sacred  shrine.     But  it  is  the  Misti  that  dominates  the  scene,  as  one  approaches  the 


THE  CRATER   OF   THE   MISTI. 


lovely  valley.  The  grandeur  and  sublimity  of  this  noble  peak  lies  not  only  in  its  altitude, 
over  nineteen  thousand  feet,  but  in  its  clear-cut  conical  form  and  in  the  mantle  of  snow 
that  perpetually  crowns  its  summit.  There  is  little  about  its  appearance  to  suggest  the 
terrible  explosions  of  flame  and  lava  which  once  burst  from  its  crater,  and  the  only  fire 
the  imagination  can  associate  with  its  pure  white  summit,  is  that  of  the  altar  of  worship. 
What  an  ideal  temple  it  would  have  been  for  the  Virgins  of  the  Sun ! 

The  Misti  has  its  legends — what  volcano  has  not  ? — and  we  are  told  the  reason  why 
its  fire  is  now  quenched  and  its  red  mouth  sealed  with  snow.  Ages  ago,  when  it  was  a 
monster  of  destructive  passion,  scorching  with  its  hot  breath  and  poisoning  with  its 
venomous  lava  all  the  beautiful  things  of  the  valley,  the  Children  of  the  Sun  complained  to 
their  celestial  father,  beseeching  him  to  stifle  the  evil  genius  and  save  them  from  his 
malevolence.  The  Sun,  the  father  of  goodness,  irritated  by  the  giant's  wickedness,  drowned 
him  in  his  own  liquid  fire,  and  sealed  the  top  of  the  Cerro  with  a  wafer  of  snow,  more 
impenetrable  than  granite,  so  that  the  monster  might  nevermore  be  able  to  breathe,  in  case 


AREQUIPA—THE  MISTI—HARyARD  OBSERVATORY 


257 


some  evil  spirit  were  to  try  to  bring  it  back  to  life.  Another  legend  says  that  St.  Thomas, 
when  preaciiing  in  this  region,  was  so  indignant  at  the  presumption  of  this  thing  of  fire  and 
destruction,  that  he  threw  his  sandal  into  its  crater,  whereupon  the  colossus  was  calmed 
and  made  incapable  of  any  further  mischief.  The  beautiful  valley,  released  from  slavery  to 
the  whims  of  a  cruel  tyrant,  has  ever  since  shown  gratitude  to  heaven  for  its  salvation  by 
rendering  every  service  to  mankind  that  abundant  fertility  could  compass. 

Leaving  the  fascinating  realm  of  tradition  for  the  more  reliable  ground  of  history,  one 
finds  that  the  present  city  of  Arequipa  was  founded  by  Garcia  Manuel  de  Carvajal,  under 
Pizarro's  orders,  in  the  year  1^40,  and  that  it  was  christened  Villa  Hermosa,  "Beautiful 
City" — a  name  as  appropriate  to-day  as  when  the  lovely  spot  was  chosen.  Situated  at  an 
altitude  of  eight  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  this  paradise  of  green  gardens 
and  sunny  skies  is  an  ideal  place  of  residence  for  those  who  seek  a  healthful  climate  and 
the  blessings  of  perpetual  spring. 

One  of  the  motives  that  decided  Pizarro  to  choose  the  base  of  the  Misti  as  a  site  for 
the  construction  of  a  colonial  city  was  expressed  in  his  formal  authorization,  which  set  forth 
that,  in  the  ten  months  that  the  Spaniards  had  lived  there,  none  of  their  number  had  died, 
though  they  formed  a  considerable  settlement.  Favored  by  the  circumstances  that  bountiful 
Nature  and  liuman  industry  contributed  to  the  new  city  from  the  period  of  its  foundation. 


AREQUIPA  AND  THE   MISTI. 


Arequipa  grew  and  flourished,  and  in  the  time  of  the  Viceroy  Toledo,  it  received  by 
the  royal  decree  of  King  Philip  11.  the  honorable  title  of  "very  noble  and  very  loyal." 


2^8 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


A  notable  compliment  was  paid  to  the  ladies  of  Arequipa  in  this  decree,  which  compared 
them  to  the  Roman  matrons  in  devotion  and  self-sacrifice,  praising  the  spirit  shown  in  the 
giving  up  of  their  jewels  to  raise  a  royal  donation,  a  few  years  before. 


A  CELEBRATION   OF   MASS  ON   THE   SUMMIT  OF  THE   MISTI. 


Arequipa  is  a  "  white  city,"  built  of  native  stone  from  the  inexhaustible  quarries  of  the 
Misti.  The  stone  is  of  volcanic  formation,  white,  porous,  and  easily  chiselled;  in  the  older 
edifices,  which  were  constructed  during  the  time  of  the  viceroyalty,  the  facades  are 
exquisitely  carved  in  designs  as  fine  as  lace  work,  showing  how  well  this  stone  lends 
itself  to  the  beauties  of  decorative  architecture.  Owing  to  the  numerous  earthquakes  which 
have  visited  Arequipa  in  the  past,  it  is  the  custom  to  build  only  one  and  two-story 
structures,  the  walls  being  sometimes  more  than  three  feet  in  thickness.  Many  of  the 
houses  are  built  with  a  vaulted  roof,  the  arch  offering  greatest  resistance  to  the  destructive 
force  of  seismic  convulsions.  As  there  is  plenty  of  space  available,  the  most  costly 
residences  cover  a  considerable  area,  having  large  patios,  or  interior  courts,  which  are  paved 
with  ornamental  tiles,  and  arranged  with  handsome  jardinieres  of  plants  and  flowers.  Some 
of  the  patios  are  beautified  with  trees  and  a  flower  garden,  while  others  have  an  artistic 
fountain  in  the  midst.  Arequipa  has  not  yet  reached  the  period  of  congested  thoroughfares 
and  a  population  that  can  be  accommodated  only  by  means  of  "skyscrapers."  These  huge 
towers  with  little  more  than  pigeon-holes  for  rooms,  which  are  among  the  necessary  evils 
of  overcrowded  modern  centres,  are  still  unknown  to  the  city  of  the  emerald  ceinture. 


/IREQUIPA—THE  MISTI— HARVARD  OBSERl/ATORY 


2?9 


Arequipa  is  built  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Chili,  its  streets  stretching  out  in  all 
directions  to  the  campina,  or  green  country  fields  surrounding  it.  As  in  all  Spanish- American 
cities  the  principal  square  is  the  centre  from  which  radiates  the  activity  of  the  population. 
It  is  popularly  called  tiie  Pla:(a  Mayor,  and  bears  the  official  name  of  Plaza  de  Armas,  or 
"Military  Plaza."  in  Arequipa,  the  Plaza  de  Armas  presents  a  particularly  attractive  appear- 
ance, the  Cathedral,  which  extends  along  one  side  of  this  square,  being  a  magnificent  and 
imposing  edifice,  while  the  arched  portales  that  overlook  the  remaining  three  sides  are 
picturesque  examples  of  colonial  architecture. 

The  Cathedral  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  interesting  temples  of  Catholic  America. 
Nearly  three  hundred  years  ago  the  decree -was  issued  for  its  construction,  by  Pope  Paul  iV., 
though  it  was  not  until  the  time  of  his  successor,  Pope  Paul  V.,  that  the  work  was  begun, 
during  the  reign  of  King  Philip  111,  in  1612.    The  temple  was  built  in  accordance  with  the 


LOS  PORTALES,  AREQUIPA. 


custom  of  those  days,  the  decorations  of  its  arches  and  columns  being  elaborate  and  of 
costly  workmanship.  Altars  of  cedar,  carved  in  beautiful  design,  were  subsequently 
replaced  by  those  of  silver,  the  abundance  of  this  precious  metal  resulting  in  its  lavish  use 


26o 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


for  the  decoration  of  all  the  churches  and  convents  of  the  viceroyalty.  The  chancel  occupied 
the  centre  of  the  chief  nave  and  its  seats  were  of  finest  cedar,  their  carved  backs  showing 


PLAZA    DE   ARMAS,  AREQUIPA. 


in  high  relief  the  effigies  of  the  twelve  apostles  and  other  saints.  In  the  sacristy  were 
preserved  many  rich  treasures,  consecrated  vases  of  gold,  sacerdotal  vestments  of  rare 
value,  and  a  collection  of  portraits  of  all  the  bishops  of  Arequipa  from  the  earliest  days. 
Many  of  these  priceless  possessions  were  destroyed  by  fire  in  1844,  when  everything 
perishable  succumbed  to  the  flames  that  wrapped  the  great  edifice  in  a  lurid  sheet.  The 
silver  of  the  altars  ran  over  the  floor  in  a  molten  stream,  all  efforts  to  save  the  precious 
ornaments  being  futile.  The  rebuilding  of  the  sacred  structure  took  twenty  years,  and  was 
little  more  than  completed  when  a  terrible  earthquake  visited  the  city,  in  1868,  which,  how- 
ever, damaged  the  Cathedral  only  slightly ; — a  proof  of  its  excellent  and  solid  construction, 
since  the  shock  was  terrific  and  prolonged  and  resulted  in  much  loss  of  property. 

The  Cathedral  of  Arequipa  is  one  of  the  most  admirable  specimens  of  church  archi- 
tecture in  America.  Its  fagade  measures  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length;  three 
entrances,  and  the  support  of  seventy  columns  of  composite  Ionic  and  Doric  style,  give  a 
magnificent  appearance  to  the  edifice.  The  peculiar  advantage  offered  by  its  location — 
dominating  a  spacious  plaza — enhances  the  imposing  effect  of  its  splendid  architecture, 
which  would  have  been  dwarfed,  from  an  artistic  point  of  view,  in  a  less  commanding 
site.    The  interior  of  the  temple  is  divided  into  three  naves,  separated  by  superb  columns 


AREQUIPA—THE  MISTI—H/IRyARD  OBSERVATORY 


261 


that  support  the  great  arches  above  with  harmonious  effect.  The  main  altar  piece  is  of 
marble  and  the  pulpit  is  a  work  of  superior  art  in  carved  wood.  There  is  an  atmosphere 
of  rest  and  peace  within  the  walls  of  this  noble  edifice  that  is  felt  not  only  by  the  pious 
worshipper  who  seeks  this  consecrated  place  for  the  purpose  of  prayer,  but  even  by  the 
indifferent  passer-by,  attracted  within  by  the  music  of  the  splendid  choir,  or  by  the  artist's 
appreciation  of  the  beautiful. 

Of  earlier  origin  than  the  Cathedral,  the  construction  of  the  church  of  the  Jesuits  was 
begun  in  the  sixteenth  century,  though  it  was  not  until  a  hundred  years  later  that  its  vaulted 
roof  was  finished.  It  is  one  of  the  celebrated  churches  of  Peru,  both  for  its  architectural 
importance  and  its  interesting  history.  The  Dominican  friars  founded  their  convent  in 
Arequipa  in  1 582,  and  the  present  temple  of  Santo  Domingo  is  among  the  principal  churches 
of  the  city.  Nearly  all  the  religious  orders  were  represented  here  during  the  viceroyalty,  the 
Convent  of  Mercy  having  been  founded  in  i  ^48,  while  the  existing  edifice  was  built  nearly 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago.  The  Franciscans  established  their  first  convent  in  Arequipa 
in  I  ^^2,  the  church  of  this  order  at  present  being  one  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  in  the 
city.    There  are  three  nunneries  here,  Santa  Catalina,  Santa  Teresa,  and  Santa  Rosa. 


STREET  SCENE.  AREQUIPA. 


The  social  life  of  the  Arequipena — the  lady  of  Arequipa — is  essentially  that  of  a  refined, 
gracious,  and  charitable  Christian,  who  esteems  it  her  greatest  pleasure,  as  well  as  duty,  to 
attend  to  the  demands  of  religion,  and  to  extend  to  the  sick  and  the  needy  the  gentle 


262 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


kindness  which  is  characteristic  of  her,  whether  in  the  salon,  the  charity  ward,  or  tlie  abode 
of  suffering.  The  Orphans'  Asylum  of  Arequipa  reflects  this  spirit  of  kindness  in  its  appear- 
ance and  administration.  It  occupies  a 
spacious  building,  and  connected  with 
it  are  large  gardens  where  the  children 
may  run  and  play  in  the  hours  of  recre- 
ation. About  four  hundred  children  are 
accommodated  in  this  institution,  which 
is  one  of  the  charges  of  the  Benevolent 
Society.  Under  the  same  administra- 
tion, the  Hospital  of  San  Juan  de  Dios 
provides  care  and  comfort  to  the  suffer- 
ing poor,  its  matron  and  nurses  belong- 
ing to  the  world-renowned  order,  the 
Sisters  of  Charity.  The  new  hospital  is 
a  credit  to  the  enterprise  as  well  as  the 
charitable  spirit  of  the  people,  who  have 
contributed  to  make  it  one  of  the  notable 
institutions  of  the  country. 

The  schools  of  Arequipa,  as  well  as 
its  churches  and  charities,  are  an  indica- 
tion of  the  refinement  of  its  people  and 
their  appreciation  of  the  advantages  of 
culture.  The  University  of  Arequipa  has 
always  been  an  important  centre  of  learning,  presided  over  by  men  of  illustrious  talents, 
and  the  various  colleges  of  the  city  rank  among  the  first  in  Peru.  The  Colegio  de  la  Inde- 
pendencia  is  a  celebrated  institution,  having  trained  for  the  service  of  the  republic  some  of 
its  greatest  statesmen.  It  was  in  Arequipa  that  the  patriot  Gonzalez  Vigil  learned  how  to 
thrill  the  hearts  of  his  hearers  by  his  earnest  and  impassioned  appeals  in  favor  of  justice 
and  liberal  government;  and  he  was  one  of  many  who  came  from  the  schools  of  Arequipa 
to  join  their  compatriots  in  the  struggle  for  good  government  that  followed  the  inauguration 
of  the  republic.  The  progress  of  education  is  as  marked  in  the  schools  devoted  to  the 
instruction  of  girls  as  in  the  boys'  colleges.  The  Colegio  de  Sefioritas,  which  is  under  the 
administration  of  the  community  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Rosary,  and  is  directed  by  the  Reverend 
Mother  Elena  Chaves  Delgado,  is  one  of  the  best  educafional  institutions  of  Peru.  It  was 
founded  in  1870  by  the  Reverend  Mother,  and  for  the  past  ten  years  it  has  been  under  the 
present  administrafion,  the  avowed  object  of  the  school  being  "the  religious,  moral,  and 
scienfific  improvement  of  the  attendants  and  the  instruction  and  education  of  the  girls,  in 
accordance  with  Catholic  doctrine  and  morality,  and  conforming  to  the  general  rules  of 
public  instruction."     A  notable  and  admirable  feature  of  the  Colegio  de  Senoritas  is  the 


CHURCH    OF   SANTO   DOMINGO,  AREQUIPA. 


AREQUIPA—THE  MISTI—HARyARD  OBSERVATORY 


26j 


GENERAL   VIEW   OF   THE   BATHS  OF   YURA. 


practical  character  of 
the  education  pro- 
vided. It  has  been 
the  constant  aim  of 
the  college  to  instil 
into  the  hearts  of  its 
pupils  a  love  of  virtue 
and  habits  of  indus- 
try; not  only  are  the 
girls  taught  the  les- 
sons of  books,  but 
they  are  given  an  op- 
portunity to  learn  by 
practice  all  the  duties 
of  a  household,  and 
are  prepared  to  earn 
a  livelihood  should 
the  necessity  occur. 

In  importance,  the  second  city  in  Peru,  Arequipa  is  the  capital  of  the  department  of  the 
same  name,  and  an  important  commercial  as  well  as  political  and  social  centre.  The 
administration  of  the  department  is  in  the  hands  of  the  prefect.  Dr.  Ximenes,  whose 
authority  extends  to  all  its  provinces  and  municipalities.  He  is  well  known  in  political 
circles  for  his  progressive  and  enterprising  ideas,  and  his  government  has  been  one  of 
steady  improvement  and  development.    The  department  is  divided  into  seven  provinces: 

Arequipa,  of  which  the  chief 
city  is  the  capital  of  the  de- 
partment; Islay,  with  its  chief 
city,  Mollendo;  Cailloma,  with 
its  capital  of  the  same  name; 
Castilla,  of  which  Aplao  is  the 
capital ;  Condesuyos,  having 
Chuquibamba  as  its  political 
centre;  Union,  extending  north 
to  the  Department  of  Apurimac 
and  dividing  the  Departments 
of  Ayacucho  and  Cuzco,  with 
Cotahuasi  its  capital;  and  the 
province  of  Camana,  stretching 
along  the  coast  from  lea  to  the 
AT  THE  BATHS  OF  YURA.  AREQUIPA.  provlnce  of  Islay ;  the  city  of 


264 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


Camana,  named  after  the  province,  of  which  it  is  the  capital,  and  the  city  of  Mollendo, 
are,  together  with  Chala  and  Quilca,  the  principal  ports  of  the  State.  Mollendo  is  a  modern 
city,  connected  with  Arequipa  by  railway,  and  is  a  stopping  place  for  all  the  steamers  of 
the  Pacific  and  the  South  American  Companies  between  Valparaiso  and  Panama,  as  well 
as  for  numerous  other  lines. 

The  local  interests  of  the  city  of  Arequipa  are  governed  by  the  Provincial  Council,  or 
Municipality.  The  present  authorities  have  given  especial  attention  to  the  improvement  of 
the  city,  devoting  earnest  efforts  to  the  carrying  out  of  important  public  works.  The 
previous  council  constructed  new  portales  in  the  principal  plaza,  built  the  Grau  bridge  over 
the  river  Chili,  established  the  water  works  system  by  which  the  city  is  supplied  from 
Yumina,  two  leagues  distant,  and  accomplished  other  reforms.  The  existing  council  is 
making  notable  improvements  in  the  beautification  of  the  Plaza  de  Armas ;  is  constructing  a 
new  market  building  suitable  to  the  growing  needs  of  the  city;  and  is  perfecting  the 
drainage  system.  The  streets  have  been  improved  and  many  of  them  newly  paved; 
Bolognesi  Park  is  now  a  more  charming  paseo  than  ever;  and  a  new  electric  street  railway 


BOLOGNESl   PARK.  AREQUIPA. 


is  to  be  established,  which  will  connect  the  city  with  its  beautiful  suburbs.    The  munici- 
pality pays  especial  attention  to  public  health,  and  the  sanitation  of  the  city  is  in  charge  of 


AREQUIPA-THE  MISTI—HARl/ARD  OBSERyATORY 


26^ 


AVENIDA  DE  TINGO,  AREQUIPA. 


competent  authorities  who  spare  no  effort  to  ensure  the  most  healthful  conditions.  The 
city  and  its  picturesque  suburbs,  Yanaguara  and  Tingo,  are  lighted  by  electricity. 

Good  roads  are  main- 
tained throughout  the  de- 
partment, and  it  is  a  pleasant 
journey  to  visit  the  various 
points  of  interest  in  the 
vicinity  of  Arequipa,  which 
is  surrounded  by  charming 
resorts  for  health  and  pleas- 
ure. Tingo,  Zemarrat,  and 
Sabandia  are  noted  not  only 
for  their  picturesque  scenery 
but  for  the  attractive  ap- 
pearance of  their  streets 
and  gardens. 

The  thermal  waters  of 
Arequipa     are     celebrated 

throughout  the  Pacific  Coast,  the  springs  of  Yura  and  the  Aguas  de  Jesus  being  known  to 
everyone  familiar  with  this  region.  The  latter  are  located  about  a  league  from  the  city, 
on  the  slope  of  one  of  the  cerros  belonging  to  a  chain  that  begins  between  the  Misti  and 
the  Pichu-pichu  and  extends  as  far  as  Paucarpata,  just  east  of  the  capital.  It  is  a  pleas- 
ant outing  to  visit  the  Aguas  de  Jesus,  and  many  parties  make  the  trip,  to  enjoy  the 
scenery  along  the  route,  which  is  superb,  and  to  take  advantage  of  the  beneficial  waters. 
The  spring  is  enclosed  in  a  stone  building,  and  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Benevolent 
Society.  Yura,  which  is  two  hours'  train  journey  from  Arequipa,  is  a  popular  health 
resort,  not  only  for  the  people  of  the  capital  but  of  all  Peru.  Its  baths  are  famous  for 
their  curative  qualities,  and  are  of  different  kinds,  including  sulphurous  and  ferruginous, 
which  possess  wonderful  properties.  Their  fame  increases  constantly  as  the  remarkable 
benefits  derived  from  their  use  by  citizens  and  travellers  become  known. 

At  a  short  distance  from  the  city,  on  the  slope  of  the  Misti,  the  Astronomical  Observa- 
tory of  Harvard  University  is  situated.  This  scientific  institution  was  founded  eighteen 
years  ago,  in  order  to  enable  astronomers  to  make  observations  at  the  greatest  possible 
altitude  above  the  sea  level.  The  location  of  the  observatory  is  perfect  for  the  purpose 
designed,  and  satisfactory  results  have  been  obtained.  At  present  this  institution  is  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  Frost,  of  Harvard  University.  The  local  authorities  extend  every 
courtesy  to  the  scientists  of  the  observatory,  who  speak  in  high  terms  of  their  politeness 
and  kindly  interest. 

The  population  of  the  Department  of  Arequipa  is  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand,  of 
which  the  capital  city  claims  forty  thousand.    An  illustrious  writer,  referring  to  its  people 


266 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


says:  "The  heart  of  the  Peruvian  nation  lives  here."  The  annals  of  its  people  show  that 
in  all  that  has  contributed  to  the  nation's  greatness  and  prosperity,  in  all  that  has  grown  out 
of  patriotic  sentiment  and  devoted  loyalty,  in  everything  pertaining  to  the  national  spirit,  as 
expressed  in  its  literature,  its  art,  and  its  social  advancement,  the  lovely  valley  at  the  foot 
of  the  Misti  has  been  represented  by  noble  children,  worthy  of  a  high  place  on  the  national 
roll  of  fame. 


^^ 

P^lipiW^^BB 

-.- 

W       .- — ,a^>fc,. 

m 

^y.  w\-^w^l 

**iiX^ 

M 

^ 

^^^■■"'■HHBr^^afljP*'" 

^ 

1 

-^"  V 

4a,               !^ 

lifc- 

V  •      -"^-''     -tarn 

- 

i   u  B|^ 

Kv>&^4^-::. 

^ 

KBH^SSi^^^ 

nfXH 

»»•"-»  ™ 

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"  '■"  ",'""' 

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;,:-.., O^^-.  .  ™ :::-,,,: 

-.,._-::-- 

J^^^^^SHI 

HARVARD  OBSERVATORY  AT  AREQUIPA. 


Of  THE 

I'M  VERS  ITyJ 

'■,  or 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


A   GENERAL    DESCRIPTION    OF    THE   COUNTRY 


A  LTHOUGH  Peru  lies  entirely  within  the  tropics, 
and  close  to  the  equator,  yet  its  climate  cannot 
be  called  equatorial,  nor  is  the  vegetation  exclusively 
that  of  the  Torrid  Zone.  Latitude  has  comparatively 
little  influence  in  determining  its  character,  the  chief 
index  to  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  remarkable 
physical  features  of  this  extensive  territory,  one  of 
the  largest  and  richest  of  the  South  American  coun- 
tries. The  temperature  here  varies  from  equatorial 
heat  to  arctic  cold,'  and  the  products  of  all  zones 
flourish  within  its  boundaries.  Lofty  peaks,  clad  in 
perpetual  snow,  look  down  from  their  frozen  sum- 
mits on  scenes  of  perennial  spring-time;  and,  from 
these  lesser  heights,  the  view  extends  over  valleys 
and  forests  where  summer  reigns  throughout  the 
year  and  Nature  is  riotous  in  her  extravagances. 
According  to  the  best  Peruvian  authority,  the  republic  extends  from  north  latitude 
1°  29'  to  south  latitude  19°  12'  30";  and  from  meridian  61°  ^4'  4^"  to  81°  18'  39"  longitude 
west  of  Greenwich,  covering  an  area  of  about  one  million  seven  hundred  thousand  square 
kilometres.  Its  boundaries  are  marked  on  the  north  by  Ecuador  and  Colombia;  on  the 
east  by  Brazil  and  Bolivia;  on  the  south  by  Chile;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  settlement  of  boundary  disputes  and  the  definite  establishment  of  limits  between  the 
different  countries  of  South  America  are  problems  that  have  long  taxed  the  diplomacy  of 
these  nations  and  proved  a  persistent  drawback  to  their  unity.  By  mutual  agreement,  it  is 
understood  that  the  basis  on  which  the  disputed  frontiers  are  to  be  defined  rests  on  the 
division  of  the  territory  made  by  Spain  during  the  colonial  government  and  recognized  at 

the  time  of  the  Independence.    The  delays  that  have  occurred  in  fixing  these  limits  have 

269 


ON   THE   WAY   TO   MARKET. 


270 


THE  OLD  AhlD   THE  NEIV  PERU 


made  the  task  more  delicate  with  the  passing  of  time,  owing  to  the  increased  value  of  the 
lands  in  dispute,  the  growing  population  and  other  circumstances;  but,  fortunately,  the  vexed 


LAKE  OF   LA  VIUDA,  IN   THE   HIGH   SIERRA. 


problem  is  rapidly  nearing  a  final  solution,  most  of  the  rival  claims  having  been  already 
submitted  to  arbitration,  and  many  of  them  satisfactorily  settled.  The  frontiers  indicated  in 
the  accompanying  map  represent  the  claims  of  Peru;  though  the  limits  between  this 
country  and  its  northern  and  eastern  neighbors,  as  here  shown,  may  be  modified  by  the 
decisions  that  are  to  result  from  the  arbitration  of  friendly  nations,  chosen  by  mutual  agree- 
ment to  mark  the  dividing  line;  on  the  south,  the  Camarones  River  forms  the  boundary 
between  Peru  and  Chile,  though  the  latter  occupies  the  provinces  of  Tacna  and  Arica  pending 
the  plebiscite  agreed  upon  in  the  treaty  of  Ancon. 

Between  the  rainless  region  of  the  coast  and  the  dripping  forests  of  the  Montafia,  the 
country  is  crossed  by  three  mountain  ranges  that  run  parallel  through  a  part  of  their  course, 
sending  out  transverse  chains  at  intervals,  or  joining  together  in  great  niidos,  "  knots,"  that 
form  high  plateaus  in  the  midst  of  lofty  peaks,  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  By  this  moun- 
tain system,  Peru  is  divided  into  three  distinct  regions:  the  coast,  the  sierra,  and  the  Montana, 
or  wooded  plains.  The  coast  region  extends  from  the  sea  inland  to  the  Cordilleras,  reaching 
an  altitude  of  from  three  thousand  to  four  thousand  feet;  the  sierra  attains  a  height  varying 
from  ten  thousand  to  eighteen  thousand  feet,  the  high  altitude,  above  the  limit  of  vegetation 


r 


A  GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COUNTRY 


271 


being  known  as  the  puna;  the  Montana  covers  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  total  area  of  Peru, 
stretching  from  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes  to  the  frontiers  of  Brazil  and  Bolivia. 

The  coast  zone  embraces  a  strip  of  land  about  fifteen  hundred  miles  in  length,  having 
an  average  width  of  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  miles.  From  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  which 
forms  its  northern  boundary,  to  the  extreme  southern  limit  of  this  region  the  coast  line  is 
marked  by  a  succession  of  bare  cliffs  and  shifting  sandhills;  though  even  this  dreary 
prospect  has  its  peculiar  charm  when  seen  in  the  lights  and  shadows  of  dawn,  or  in  the 
still  more  marvellous  colors  of  the  sunset.  One  is  reminded  of  the  glow  that  spreads  over 
Alpine  summits  as  the  great  orb  vanishes;  in  the  fading  light,  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  are 
as  purple  at  the  foot  of  these  rosy  rocks  as  are  the  deep  ravines  below  the  Jungfrau.  On 
this  strip  of  coast  land,  rain  falls  so  seldom  and  in  such  insignificant  quantities  as  to  be 
hardly  worthy  of  mention.  The  only  moisture  which  the  soil  receives  is  derived  from  the 
rivers  that  traverse  it  on  their  way  to  the  sea  from  the  Cordilleras,  and  the  mists  that 
prevail  during  the  winter  season  from  May  to  August,  caused  by  the  southeast  winds. 

The  lack  of  rain  on  the  Peruvian  coast  is  chiefly  due  to  two  important  circumstances, 
which  explain  why  neither  the  winds  from  the  Pacific  nor  those  from  the  Atlantic  discharge 


IN   THE   VALLEY  OF  ABANCAY. 


any  moisture  on  this  sandy  soil.    The  prevailing  winds  from  the  Pacific  blow  from  the 
southeast  and  carry  very  little  moisture,  owing  to  their  courses  being  parallel  with  that  of 


272 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


SCENE   ON   THE   TUMBES   RIVER. 


the  Humboldt  current, — a  submarine  stream  from  the  antarctic,  which  follows  the  line  of  the 
Peruvian  coast  throughout  its  entire  length  and  has  a  temperature  seven  degrees  colder  than 

the  ocean ;  it  is  a  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  wide,  with 
a  velocity  of  about  a  mile 
an  hour.  Besides  the 
southeast  wind,  a  west 
wind  blows  across  the 
Pacific,  bringing  plenty 
of  rainclouds;  but  it  is 
checked  by  the  stronger 
southeast  current  as  it 
approaches  the  coast, 
and  its  benefits  are  lost. 
The  trade  winds  that 
cross  the  Amazon  plain 
from  the  Atlantic  dis- 
charge a  great  amount 
of  rain  in  their  course,  but  when  they  reach  the  high  altitudes  of  the  Andean  range,  their 
vapor  is  condensed  and  falls  in  the  form  of  snow,  no  moisture  remaining  with  which  to 
water  the  narrow  strip  that  lies  between  the  Cordilleras  and  the  Pacific.  The  sea  breeze, 
known  as  the  vira{dn,  is  strongest  along  the  southern  part  of  the  coast,  where,  during  the 
winter  months,  it  sometimes  causes  inconvenience  in  the  various  harbors,  on  account  of  the 
heavy  surf  it  creates.  As  a  rule,  the  Peruvian  coast  presents  few  difficulties  to  navigation. 
It  is  seldom  visited  by  storms,  and  there  are  no  rocks,  reefs,  or  shoals,  to  give  the  mariner 
anxiety.  A  remarkable  feature  of  the  ocean  in  this  region  is  the  appearance,  during  the 
winter  season,  of  a  current  which  is  supposed  to  be  a  prolongation  of  the  equatorial  stream, 
and  which  flows  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  Humboldt  current ;  it  is  known  as  the  uino. 
Only  two  seasons  are  perceptible  in  the  coast  region  of  Peru,  the  winter  months,  from 
June  to  November,  being  cooler  than  those  of  summer,  from  December  to  May.  Fogs  are 
frequent  between  December  and  April,  though  they  seldom  last  throughout  the  day.  The 
heat  is  never  intense,  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  Humboldt  current,  which  modifies  the 
effect  of  the  sun's  rays.  Although  apparently  barren  throughout  a  large  extent  of  its 
territory,  the  coast  zone  is  really  rich  in  production  and  supports  a  large  and  flourishing 
population.  In  the  subsoil  of  its  arid  plains,  valuable  deposits  of  petroleum  have  been 
found;  its  uninviting  deserts  contain  saline  beds  of  great  commercial  importance;  and 
throughout  its  length  appear  at  intervals  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys,  watered  by  abundant 
streams  and  yielding  enormous  harvests  of  sugar-cane,  cotton,  rice,  and  all  kinds  of  fruits. 
The  rivers  of  the  coast,  though  numerous,  are  of  limited  extent  and  volume,  nearly  all  of 
them  having  their  sources  on  the  Pacific  Slope  of  the  Andes  and  flowing  directly  across  the 


A  GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COUNTRY 


27^ 


sandy  strip  of  coast  land  to  the  ocean.  During  the  summer,  when  abundant  rains  fall 
in  the  upper  ravines  of  the  Cordilleras,  the  coast  streams  carry  plenty  of  water  to  irrigate 
the  valleys ;  a  few  of  them  are  navigable  for  a  short  distance,  but  only  for  small  craft.  The 
valleys  drained  by  these  rivers — about  fifty  in  all — are  like  ribbons  of  green  crossing  the 
brown  sands  of  the  coast;  their  existence  is  an  indication  of  the  wealth  which  might  be 
secured  throughout  the  entire  region  by  artificial  irrigation. 

The  coast  line  of  Peru  presents  few  indentations.  Its  principal  bays  are:  Tumbes,  in 
the  extreme  north,  an  inlet  from  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil ;  Paita  and  Sechura  on  the  coast  of 
Piura;  Chimbote  and  Samanco  near  the  northern  border  of  Ancash  Department,  both  large 
and  beautiful  bays;  Salinas  and  Callao,  on  the  Lima  coast;  Pisco,  San  Nicolas,  and  the 
famous  Bay  of  Independencia,  where  San  Martin  landed  the  Liberating  Army,  on  the  coast 
of  lea ;  and  the  picturesque  bay  of  Arica.  A  few  notable  capes  and  promontories  mark  the 
sea  line.  Cape  Blanco  being  the  first  point  at  which  the  coast  curves  southward  after  leaving 
the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil ;  and  Point  Parinas,  the  most  westerly  promontory  of  South  America. 
Near  the  coast,  and  presenting  the  same  barren  aspect,  are  several  groups  of  islands 
belonging  to  Peru,  the  most  important  being  Lobos  de  Afuera,  Lobos  de  Adentro,  and 
Guafiape,  in  the  north,  and  the  Chincha  Islands  a  few  miles  from  the  port  of  Pisco,  south 


MONZON   VALLEY,  IN  THE   HUALLAGA   REGION. 


of  Callao,  noted  for  their  rich  deposits  of  guano.    San  Lorenzo  Island,  which  lies  six  miles 
to  the  southwest  of  Callao,  serves  as  a  protection  to  the  chief  harbor  of  Peru.    They  are  all 


274 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


ANCON,  A  COAST   RESORT   NEAR   CALLAO. 


desert  rocks,  though  many  interesting  pre-historic  relics  have  been  found  on  San  Lorenzo 
which  indicate  that  this  island  was  at  one  time  the  abode  of  a  considerable  population, 

apparently  of  the  same 
race  as  the  pre-lncaic  in- 
habitants of  the  southern 
coast  district. 

Leaving  the  coast  for 
the  sierra,  one  is  impressed 
by  the  rapid  change  of 
scene  and  the  beauty  of 
the  landscape  that  unfolds 
to  view  in  varying  aspects 
as  the  lower  levels  are  left 
behind  and  the  towering 
majesty  of  the  Cordilleras 
appears  in  closer  proximity. 
The  great  Andean  system 
not  only  divides  the  region 
of  the  coast  from  that  of  the  Amazon  plain,  but,  by  its  peculiar  formation,  gives  to  this  part 
of  Peru  certain  features  not  to  be  found  in  any  other  country.  Where  the  Andes  mountains 
cross  the  border  between  Peru  and  Bolivia,  they  consist  of  three  high  ranges,  viz.,  the  Occi- 
dental and  Oriental  Cordilleras  and  an  intermediary  or  central  chain.  Near  Lake  Titicaca  the 
Cordilleras  join  to  form  the  Nudo  of  Vilcanota;  and  about  three  degrees  farther  north, 
following  a  northwesterly  direction,  they  again  unite  in  the  Nudo  of  Cerro  de  Pasco.  The 
average  height  of  the  great  ranges,  from  the  Bolivian  border  as  far  north  as  seven  degrees 
south  latitude,  is  from  thirteen  thousand  to  seventeen  thousand* feet  above  sea  level,  a  few 
peaks  rising  above  twenty  thousand  feet;  then  the  altitude  diminishes  to  an  average  of  from 
nine  thousand  to  ten  thousand  feet,  with  frequent  openings  or  passes  not  more  than  seven 
thousand  feet  above  sea  level.  Farther  north,  crossing  the  border  of  Ecuador,  the  altitude  is 
again  increased  to  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow.  Between  the  mountain  ranges  extends  a  high 
uneven  plateau,  broken  by  deep  ravines  and  gorges,  where  transverse  chains  have  destroyed 
the  regularity  of  the  majestic  Cordilleras ;  in  this  inter-Andean  region  are  also  fertile  valleys 
marking  the  courses  of  streams  which  have  their  origin  in  the  Nudos  of  Vilcanota  or  Cerro  de 
Pasco,  and  which  flow  between  the  ranges,  until  an  opening  occurs  to  give  them  passage  to 
the  plains  of  the  mighty  Amazon. 

The  abundance  of  moisture  carried  by  the  winds  from  the  Atlantic,  and  deposited  on 
the  Andean  summits  in  the  form  of  snow,  accounts  for  the  existence  of  several  lakes  at 
great  altitudes  in  this  region ;  in  most  cases,  an  opening  in  the  surrounding  mountains  has 
caused  an  overflow  into  lower  levels,  thus  originating  the  greatest  river  system  of  South 
America.    There  are  evidences  in  the  plains  and  valleys  of  the  high  sierras  that  these  were 


A  GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COUNTRY 


275 


at  one  time  lakes,  their  waters  having  disappeared  in  consequence  of  the  gradual  wearing 
away  of  the  opening  and  the  levelling  of  the  bed  of  the  lake  by  sediments  deposited  in  the 
course  of  ages.  A  few  of  these  inter-Andean  lakes  still  remain.  The  famous  Lake  Titicaca, 
which  lies  partly  in  Peruvian  and  partly  in  Bolivian  territory,  and  which  covers  an  area  of 
more  than  eight  thousand  square  kilometres,  at  an  altitude  of  twelve  thousand  five  hundred 
feet  above  sea  level,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  bodies  of  water  in  the  world ;  it  is  the 
highest  navigable  lake  on  the  globe,  and  is  celebrated  in  South  American  tradition  as  the 
cradle  of  the  Inca  dynasty.  Steam  navigation  was  established  on  this  lake  in  1867,  between 
the  Peruvian  port  of  Puno,  at  the  Titicaca  terminus  of  the  Southern  railway  from  Mollendo, 
and  the  Bolivian  port  of  Guaqui,  at  the  Titicaca  terminus  of  the  La  Paz  railway.  The  trip 
across  the  lake  by  steamer  takes  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hours,  during  which  one  may  enjoy 
a  most  unusual  experience,  not  only  "  on  a  sea  above  the  clouds  "  but  at  times  in  view  of  a 
whole  range  of  resplendent  snow  summits,  glistening  under  a  sky  of  marvellous  blue.  Many 
rivers  and  streams  flow  into  Lake  Titicaca,  though  only  one,  the  Desaguadero,  has  its  source 
in  that  lake.  From  the  Nudo  of  Vilcanota  at  the  north  flow  the  rivers  Suchis,  Huancane,  and 
Ramis,  with  their  affluents ;  from  the  west,  having  their  origin  in  the  high  sierra  between 
Arequipa  and  Puno,  descend  the  Cabanillas  and  Lampa,  confluents  of  the  Coata;  and  from 
the  south,  the  Blanco,  Juli,  and  smaller  streams  empty  into  the  great  lake.  Besides  Titicaca, 
Peru  has  several  lakes  of  less  extensive  area,  the  most  noted  being  the  Laguna  de  Junin, 


THE   BELL   ROCK   OF   ETEN. 


famous  as  the  site  of  the  historic  victory  won  by  the  patriot  army  over  the  colonial  forces 
of  Spain ;  Rimachuma  in  the  Department  of  Loreto,  and  Arapa  in  Puno,  are  of  considerable 
importance. 


276 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


The  Laguna  of  Santa  Ana,  in  the  Department  of  Huanuco,  though  only  six  square  miles 
in  circumference,  is  worthy  of  mention  as  the  source  of  the  Maranon,  one  of  the  parent 

streams  of  the  great  Amazon 
River.  It  is  situated  in  the 
Nudo  of  Cerro  de  Pasco,  a  few 
leagues  northwest  of  Junin. 
The  Ucayali  and  the  Madeira 
— the  latter  with  its  tributaries, 
the  Beni  and  the  Madre  de 
Dios,  being  the  longest  of  all 
the  Amazon's  tributaries — 
have  their  source  in  the  Nudo 
of  Vilcanota,  and,  like  the  Mar- 
afion,  have  an  inter-Andean 
course  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance before  entering  the  vast 
Amazon  plain.  On  the  route 
from  Puno  to  Cuzco,  at  a  point 
called  La  Raya,  the  mountain 
summits  surround  a  small 
basin,  in  the  midst  of  which  is 
a  little  pond ;  from  this  insig- 
nificant beginning,  two  streams 
take  their  course  in  opposite 
directions, — the  Ramis,  which 
flows  into  Lake  Titicaca,  and 
the  Vilcanota,  afterward  the 
Urubamba,  which,  after  form- 
ing a  junction  with  the  Apuri- 
mac,  another  important  river 
of  this  region,  becomes  the 
chief  affluent  of  the  Ucayali.  The  Urubamba  and  the  Apurimac  run  parallel  along  the  sepa- 
rate valleys  formed  between  the  Occidental  and  Oriental  ranges  by  the  intermediary  chain 
which  accompanies  them  from  the  Nudo  of  Vilcanota  northward,  until  the  three  Cordilleras 
join  again  in  the  Nudo  of  Cerro  de  Pasco.  Separating  north  of  Cerro  de  Pasco,  these  three 
great  ranges  form  the  valleys  of  the  Marai^on  and  the  Huallaga.  The  rapids,  or  "  pongos," 
which  interrupt  navigation  on  nearly  all  the  Amazon  tributaries  at  some  point  of  their  course, 
usually  indicate  a  break  in  the  enclosing  Andean  walls,  simultaneous  with  a  change  of  their 
direction,  the  river  resisting  an  effort  to  turn  its  channel,  and  plunging  through  the  narrow 
gorge  that  affords  it  escape. 


QUEBRADA   SANTA   ROSA,  ANCASH   DEPARTMENT. 


A  GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COUNTRY  277 

The  rivers  which  have  their  source  in  Vilcanota  or  Cerro  de  Pasco  are  no  more  than 
littie  rivulets  of  melted  snow  as  they  first  appear  in  the  crevices  of  the  high  sierra;  but  tliey 
are  fed  by  a  thousand  streams  along  their  course,  and  increase  rapidly  in  volume  as  they  flow 
toward  the  plain,  following  the  channel  cut  for  them  in  the  course  of  ages,  now  carved  so 
deep  that,  in  some  places,  it  lies  at  the  bottom  of  a  chasm  thousands  of  feet  below  the  level 
of  the  bordering  hills  and  plains.  It  is  only  after  leaving  the  region  of  the  sierra  that  these 
rivers  are  navigable,  though  they  are  capable  of  supplying  unlimited  motive  power  for 
manufacturing  and  other  purposes.  Many  of  them  are  famous- in  history  and  a  few  have 
claims  to  particular  interest  through  their  association  with  the  legends  and  traditions  of  the 
Incas.  The  Apurimac,  across  which  Maita-Ccapac  swung  the  first  American  suspension 
bridge,  has  its  source  in  the  Laguna  de  Vilafro,  fourteen  thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  in 
the  Department  of  Arequipa.  it  receives  many  affluents,  and,  as  it  descends  into  the  lower 
valleys,  drains  a  country  rich  in  agriculture,  one  of  the  most  productive  regions  of  Peru.  It 
was  on  the  border  of  this  river  that  General  Sucre  and  his  army  were  encamped  by  Bolivar's 
orders,  when  the  news  of  the  royalist  army's  approach  led  to  the  rapid  change  of  plans 
which  resulted  in  General  Sucre's  becoming  the  hero  of  Ayacucho.  To-day,  the  beautiful 
valleys  of  this  region  blossom  with  the  fruits  of  peaceful  industry,  and  thriving  towns 
adorn  its  landscapes.  Abancay,  the  picturesque  capital  of  the  Department  of  Apurimac,  is 
surrounded  by  sugar  plantations,  and  the  CcimpiTki  is  dotted  with  mulberry  trees,  the 
silkworm  industry  being  a  profitable  source  of  revenue. 

The  Urubamba  River,  like  the  Apurimac,  flows  through  a  fertile  valley,  crossing  the 
Department  of  Cuzco  in  a  northwesterly  course  from  the  border  of  Puno  to  the  southern 
limit  of  Loreto,  where  it  forms  a  Confluence  with  the  Tambo — as  the  Apurimac  is  called 
after  receiving  its  last  tributary,  the  Perene, — and  enters  the  broad  channel  of  the  Ucayali. 
The  Urubamba  has  a  number  of  tributaries,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  Paucar- 
tambo ;  along  the  courses  of  these  rivers  are  fields  of  sugar-cane,  and  in  the  lower  valleys 
grow  cacao  and  all  tropical  fruits. 

The  Marailon,  and  its  tributary,  the  Huallaga,  flowing  northward  from  the  Nudo  of 
Cerro  de  Pasco,  water  a  region  of  surpassing  fertility,  in  the  valleys  of  which  are  to  be 
seen  every  variety  of  agricultural  product.  The  Marafion  receives  a  great  many  tributaries 
from  the  Occidental  range  as  it  flows  northward  across  the  Department  of  Huanuco,  turning 
northwest  between  Loreto  and  Ancash,  and  traversing  the  Department  of  La  Libertad. 
After  dividing  the  Departments  of  Cajamarca  and  Amazonas  for  some  distance,  it  makes  a 
curve  to  the  northeast  and,  turning  sharply  in  an  easterly  direction,  pursues  a  tortuous 
course  until  joined  by  the  Ucayali,  to  form  the  Amazon.  In  changing  its  direction  from 
northwest  to  east,  the  Marafion  passes  the  "  pongo,"  or  falls,  of  Manserriche,  the  last  and 
most  important  of  a  series  of  rapids  which  mark  an  effort  to  free  its  current  from  the 
confining  Andes.  From  the  north,  the  Maranon  receives  the  Santiago,  Morona,  Pastaza, 
Tigre,  and  other  tributaries,  while  from  the  south,  its  chief  affluent  is  the  Huallaga.  The 
greatest  variety  of  scenery  and  climate  marks  its  course,  which  begins  on  the  high  puna,  in 


278 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


the  midst  of  snowy  peaks,  and  descends  between  mountain  slopes,  on  which  cattle  and 
sheep  graze  in  perennial  pastures,  through  valleys  dotted  with  orchards,  and  fertile  levels 
where  cotton,  tobacco,  and  sugar-cane  grow,  to  the  region  of  the  Montafia,  fruitful  in  cacao, 
coca,  and  other  products  of  a  tropical  zone.  In  the  valleys  drained  by  the  tributaries  of  the 
Marafion  are  situated  some  of  the  most  prosperous  farms  and  plantations  of  Peru,  though 
the  wealth  of  this  region  has  never  been  exploited  on  a  scale  of  sufficient  importance  to 
show  what  it  is  capable  of  producing.  Cajamarca,  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  the 
same  name,  and  Chachapoyas,  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Amazonas,  are  the  most 
important  industrial  centres  of  this  inter-Andean  valley. 

Cajamarca,  the  historic  city  of  the  Conquest,  celebrated  as  the  site  of  the  capture 
and  execution  of  Atahuallpa,  lies  in  an  oval  plain  surrounded  by  mountains  and  traversed 


NATIVE    BOATMEN   ON    LAKE    TITICACA. 


by  the  Camarca  River,  a  branch  of  the  Marafion.  Interesting  ruins  remain  to  give  an  idea 
of  the  great  structures  built  by  the  Incas  or  their  predecessors,  and  the  hot  springs  are 
as  efficacious  to-day  as  they  were  when  the  last  unhappy  monarch  of  Cuzco  found  them 
a  source  of  royal  comfort  and  pleasure.  The  valley  of  Cajamarca  is  well  cultivated,  the 
inhabitants  being  industrious  and  thrifty. 

Leaving  the  inter-Andean  region  for  the  Montana,  it  is  interesting  to  observe  the 
contrast  in  scenery  and  natural  conditions.  In  the  Andean  valleys,  the  traveller  who 
departs  from  the  line  of  the  railway  must  journey  in  a  coach  or  on  muleback;  in  the 
Montana,  the  small  steamer  or  the  canoe  is  the  accustomed  means  of  travel  through 
the  forest,  the  waterways  of  this  region  affording  transportation  throughout  their  entire 
length.    Among  the  most  important  rivers  having  their  source  in  the  Montana — generally 


A  GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COUNTRY  279 

in  a  ledge  branching  off  from  the  foothills  of  the  Andes,  are  the  Yavary,  Yurui,  Purus, 
and  some  tributaries  of  the  Madeira  River.  The  great  waterways,  with  their  affluents, 
form  a  network  of  communication  in  the  Amazon  country,  and  contribute  greatly  to  the 
development  of  the  rich  resources  of  this  vast  zone,  which  is  essentially  tropical,  yielding 
the  valuable  products  of  the  rubber  tree,  the  dye-woods,  medicinal  herbs  and  hardwoods 
of  commerce,  and  other  precious  gifts  of  nature. 

With  such  a  great  variety  of  physical  conditions  as  those  which  govern  Peru,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  its  climate  should  present  many  contrasts,  and  some  unique  features, 
in  the  coast  region,  owing  to  the  proximity  of  the  snow-clad  Andes  and  the  cold  Hum- 
boldt current,  the  average  temperature  is  lower  than  that  of  any  other  country  extending 
over  the  same  degrees  of  latitude;  in  winter,  the  thermometer  registers  an  average 
temperature  of  fifteen  degrees  centigrade,  and  in  summer  the  average  is  twenty-six  degrees 
centigrade,  the  hottest  days  marking  no  higher  than  thirty  degrees  in  the  shade.  The 
mildness  of  the  climate  makes  this  region  of  Peru  an  agreeable  place  of  residence  even 
to  those  accustomed  to  the  bracing  air  of  the  temperate  zone;  it  is  not  so  liable  to  the 
epidemics  of  a  tropical  climate  as  are  less  favored  countries  in  the  same  latitude;  and,  with 
proper  sanitation  and  the  adoption  of  modern  hygienic  measures,  there  is  no  reason  why 
the  Peruvian  coast  should  not  be  a  paradise  of  health  and  longevity. 

The  climate  of  the  sierra  varies  with  the  location  and  altitude  of  the  inter- Andean 
valleys  and  the  plateaus  that  separate  them.  In  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Cordilleras, 
the  heat  is  greater  than  on  the  tablelands,  which  have  a  temperate  climate;  while  on  the 
lofty,  snow-clad  summits  of  the  range,  the  cold  is  as  intense  as  in  the  arctic  regions. 
The  seasons  of  the  sierra  are  divided  differently  from  those  of  the  coast ;  the  rainy  season, 
from  November  to  May,  being  called  winter,  and  the  dry  season,  though  colder,  being 
known  as  summer.  The  average  temperature,  within  the  populated  region  of  the  sierra, 
is  ten  degrees  centigrade  during  the  day  and  five  degrees  at  night,  the  absence  of  the 
sun  making  a  great  difference  in  the  atmosphere.  The  pure  air  of  the  plateaus  is  very 
beneficial  to  consumptives,  and  Jauja,  Tarma,  Huancayo,  and  other  towns  of  the  sierra 
have  become  famous  as  health  resorts. 

In  the  Montana,  the  two  seasons  correspond  to  those  of  the  sierra,  the  wet  season 
being  from  November  to  May,  called  winter,  and  the  dry  and  cooler  season  called  summer. 
As  the  region  of  the  Montana  slopes  away  from  the  Cordilleras,  its  higher  levels  present 
the  evidences  of  a  tropical  zone  in  the  exuberance  of  their  vegetation,  though  the  climate  is 
as  cool  and  mild  as  that  of  southern  Europe.  Foreigners  who  live  in  this  region  pronounce 
it  healthful  and  delightful,  as  malaria  is  unknown,  and  illness  of  any  kind  is  a  rare  visitor. 
As  one  descends  to  the  lower  Amazon  plain,  the  heat  becomes  intense  in  places,  though  it 
is  generally  modified  by  the  daily  showers  and  the  cooling  effect  of  the  trade  winds. 
Taken  as  a  whole,  the  climate  of  Peru  may  be  considered  benign  and  healthful,  and 
favorable  to  the  acclimation  of  foreigners,  the  conditions  being  such  that  every  stranger 
may  find,  somewhere  in  the  country,  the  same  climate  as  in  his  native  land,  or  a  better  one. 


28o 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEl^  PERU 


The  extensive  territory  of  Peru,  well  provided  by  nature  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  great 
population,  has  at  present  between  four  and  five  million  inhabitants.  The  coast  region 
supports  one-fourth  of  this  population,  having  an  average  of  4.53  inhabitants  to  each 
square  kilometre ;  the  sierra  has  about  two-thirds  of  the  entire  population,  with  an  average 
of  ^.32  to  each  square  kilometre;  and  the  Montana,  with  less  than  half  a  million  inhabitants 
in  its  vast  forests  and  plains,  shows  only  one  inhabitant  to  every  three  kilometres.  It  is  in 
this  region  that  the  greatest  opportunities  are  offered  for  colonization.  Of  the  total  popu- 
lation, the  official  statistics  give  fifteen  per  cent  to  those  of  European  descent;  fifty  per  cent 


A  LAKE   AMONG   THE   GLACIERS   OF  YAULL 


are  of  Peruvian  (Indian)  origin;  two  per  cent  are  African,  one  per  cent  is  Asiatic,  and  the 
remainder  are  of  mixed  races,  chiefly  European  and  Indian,  in  the  predominance  of 
the  descendants  of  the  Incas'  gentle  and  obedient  subjects  is  explained  the  peaceable  and 
tractable  character  of  the  masses,  whose  faults  are  rather  those  of  indolence  than  of  evil 
intention.  The  governing  class  is  chiefly  of  Spanish  origin ;  and,  notwithstanding  all  that 
has  been  written  to  the  contrary,  their  Latin  inheritance  has  peculiarly  fitted  them  to  be 
the  rulers  of  this  refined  race.  The  Spanish  conquerors  treated  the  Indians  with  great 
cruelty,  it  is  true,  and  reduced  their  number  by  forcing  them  to  unaccustomed  tasks;  but 
the  Indians  of  North  America  hardly  fared  better  under  the  zeal  and  energy  of  the  Puritan 


A  GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COUNTRY  281 

colonist,  who  instead  of  making  them  his  servants,  drove  them  away  from  their  homes, 
took  possession  of  their  country,  and  gave  himself  no  responsibility  as  to  their  future  in 
this  world, — though  earnestly  seeking  to  teach  them  how  to  find  a  haven  in  the  next. 

Peru  could  very  well  support  many  times  its  present  population,  which  is  only  equal 
to  that  of  Holland,  though  the  Department  of  Lima  alone  covers  more  territory  than  the 
entire  Dutcli  republic.  The  Department  of  Arequipa,  equal  to  Switzerland  in  extent,  and 
resembling  it  in  mountainous  character,  though  having  the  advantage  of  several  good 
seaports,  has  only  one-tenth  of  the  population  of  that  inland  country.  England  covers  less 
area  than  the  Department  of  Cuzco,  yet  has  a  hundred  times  the  population.  One  of  the 
reasons  for  the  limited  European  population  to  be  found  in  South  American  countries  is 
their  remoteness  from  the  great  highways  of  travel,  which  have  hitherto  beeh  between 
countries  of  the  nortliern  hemisphere.  But  the  twentieth  century  finds  the  extension  of 
international  relations  making  rapid  advances  south  of  the  equator;  and  new  steamship 
lines  are  being  constantly  inaugurated  to  connect  the  ports  of  Europe  and  North  America 
with  those  of  the  trans-equatorial  countries.  Nearly  all  these  countries  have  good  seaports 
and  railway  facilities  for  transportation  to  the  interior.  When  the  Panama  Canal  is  opened, 
Peru  will  be  placed  within  easy  communication  with  New  York  and  Europe;  in  the  mean- 
time, the  service  is  being  improved  so  that  it  will  soon  be  possible  to  make  the  trip  from 
the  Peruvian  port  of  Callao  to  New  York  in  ten  days. 

In  a  general  description  of  the  country,  it  is  not  possible  to  give  details  regarding  the 
many  interesting  features  of  coast,  sierra,  and  Montaila;  the  coast  is  closely  related  to  its 
highland  neighbor  and  may  even  dispute  boundaries,  where  the  mountains  crowd  near  to 
the  sea;  the  sierra  and  the  Montana  encroach  on  each  other's  domain  in  the  equatorial 
region,  offshoots  of  the  great  Andean  chain  extending  far  into  the  Amazon  valley,  while  the 
virgin  forest  climbs  high  up  the  sides  of  the  Cordillera's  slope.  Many  of  the  coast  depart- 
ments extend  inland  to  the  great  range,  and,  as  in  Ancash,  have  their  chief  city  in  the  sierra. 
Not  far  from  Huaraz,  the  capital  of  Ancash,  rises  the  lofty  peak  of  Huascaran  or  Huascan, 
said  to  be  one  of  the  highest  of  the  Western  range,  and  in  the  coast  departments  of  Arequipa, 
Moquegua,  and  Tacna  are  several  extinct  volcanoes,  the  summits  of  which  are  covered  with 
perpetual  snow. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  various  altitudes  of  Peru  have  a  modifying  effect  on  the 
natural  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  even  though  the  latitude  is  equatorial,  the  same  kinds 
of  products  are  found  in  nearly  all  the  departments,  though  each  of  the  three  natural  divi- 
sions— the  coast,  the  sierra,  and  the  Montaila — has  also  its  own  peculiar  vegetation,  not  to 
be  found  in  the  other  regions.  Along  the  coast  are  fisheries  of  growing  importance;  the 
Peruvian  government  has  engaged  the  services  of  an  expert  from  the  United  States  to  study 
the  conditions  most  favorable  to  pisciculture  and  the  results  are  most  satisfactory.  According 
to  a  recent  report  sent  to  the  Minister  of  Fomento  in  reference  to  the  fisheries  of  Lobos  de 
Afuera  and  Lobos  de  Tierra,  there  is  an  abundance  of  fish  off  the  shores  of  these  islands. 
The  peje-aguja,  "  needle  fish,"  measures  as  much  as  two  and  a  half  feet  in  length ;  the 


282 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


anchoveta,  peje-blanco,  bonito,  cabrilla,  castaneta,  charlo,  morena  (three  feet  long),  sardine,  and 
tibiiron  are  among  the  largest  varieties,  besides  which  there  are  innumerable  small  fry. 
These  islands  have  long  been  frequented  by  fishermen  from  the  mainland,  the  inhabitants 
of  Eten,  Pacasmayo,  and  other  coast  towns  having  established  a  considerable  trade  in  this 
product.  In  their  primitive-looking  boats,  called  balsas,  the  fishermen  carry  provisions  and 
other  necessary  articles  for  a  month's  sojourn  on  the  islands,  where  they  settle  themselves 
until  they  are  ready  to  make  the  return  voyage.  As  soon  as  a  fish  is  caught  it  is  killed  by  a 
blow  on  the  head,  and  each  day's  "  catch  "  is  salted  after  the  fishing  is  over.  Nets  are  rarely 
used  in  these  waters,  the  hook  and  line  being  usually  employed. 

But  although  the  islands  of  Peru  yield  an  abundance  of  fish,  it  is  as  the  centre  of  the 
guano  industry  that  they  are  chiefly  known.  The  history  of  the  Chincha  Islands,  of  Lobos 
de  Afuera  and  Lobos  de  Tierra  is  especially  interesting  as  it  relates  to  the  pelican's  haunts 
and  the  wealth  stored  on  their  desert  rocks  by  millions  of  these  birds. 


NATURAL   ARCH    OF   s\ONE   AT    HUANCANE,  NEAR    LAKE    TITICACA. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE   WEALTH   OF   THE   GUANO   ISLANDS 


AA/HOEVER  has  made  a  voyage  along 
the  coast  of  Peru  must  have  noticed 
the  thousands  of  birds  that  flock  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Chincha  islands,  near 
Pisco,  on  the  Guafiape  banks,  off  the  coast 
of  Trujillo,  and  around  the  two  island  groups, 
Lobos  de  Tierra  and  Lobos  de  Afuera,  west 
of  the  Department  of  Lambayeque.  Some- 
times, when  disturbed  by  the  steamer's 
whistle  or  other  unaccustomed  noises,  they 
rise  in  a  black  cloud  and  soar  away  out  of 
sight,  to  return  later,  one  by  one,  in  an  ap- 
parently endless  procession.  These  are  the 
pelicans  of  this  region,  the  producers  of  its 
famous  guano,  which  was,  at  one  time,  Peru's 
most  valuable  source  of  revenue,  and  which 
is  likely  again  to  become  a  mine  of  wealth  to 
the  country.  When  one  reads  that  "a  hun- 
dred thousand  tons  of  guano  were  exported 
from  Peru  to  the  United  Kingdom  last  year," 
it  seems  to  indicate  that  the  trade  is  of  no  small  importance,  even  at  the  beginning  of  its 
revival.  Not  only  on  the  islands  named,  but  all  along  the  coast,  these  birds  have  their 
haunts.  From  a  distance,  the  islands  appear  sometimes  to  be  covered  with  a  huge  black 
mantle,  which,  on  closer  examination,  proves  to  be  the  plumage  of  the  birds  that  have 
congregated  on  its  shores,  huddling  together  in  ah  immense  company. 

The  return  of  the  pelicans  and  the  revival  of  this  trade  are  of  particular  interest  to 

those  who  have  followed  the  history  of  guano  in  Peru.    For  several  years  past  the  birds 

283 


PREPARING  GUANO  FOR  SHIPMENT. 


284 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


have  been  coming  back  to  their  long-abandoned  haunts  in  greater  numbers  than  ever. 
The  trade  is  reviving  under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  and  the  government  has 


THE   HOUR  OF  SIESTA  FOR   THE  GUANO   BIRDS. 


undertaken  measures  by  which  to  protect  the  welcome  visitors,  and  ensure  their  remain- 
ing permanently.  It  is  believed  that,  by  taking  due  precautions  in  the  extracting  of 
guano,  so  that  the  birds  may  not  be  frightened  away  or  forced  to  leave  their  nestlings, 
the  danger  of  their  again  abandoning  the  islands  may  be  avoided,  and  their  number 
may  be  greatly  increased.  It  has  been  especially  recommended  that  the  exploitation  of 
the  islands  should  be  made  by  turns;  that  a  few  of  them  should  be  closed  to  the  trade 
for  a  number  of  years,  leaving  the  birds  in  undisturbed  possession,  while  others  are 
worked,  this  plan  to  be  followed  in  rotation;  and  the  advisability  of  granting  exclusive 
concessions  for  each  island  has  been  recommended.  Under  the  authority  of  the  gov- 
ernment, investigations  have  been  made  as  to  the  existing  conditions,  and  the  reports 
of  those  who  visited  the  pelicans'  haunts  show  that  the  problem  of  prime  importance 
is  how  to  keep  the  greatest  number  of  birds  on  the  islands  and  increase  their  number 
without  prejudicing  the  best  interests  of  the  government,  the  national  agriculture,  or  the 
exporters.  It  is  urged  that  the  birds  should  be  treated  with  the  greatest  consideration 
and  care,  so  that  they  may  be  perfectly  secure  in  their  chosen  homes,  migrating  only 


THE  IVE/ILTH  OF  THE  GUANO  ISLANDS 


285 


from  one  to  another  island  at  long  intervals,  and  so  remaining  almost  undisturbed  in  their 
habits  from  year  to  year. 

The  advent  of  these  old  friends  is  looked  upon  as. an  augury  of  bright  import  by  the 
Peruvian  people,  in  view  of  the  period  of  great  trial  and  disaster  that  followed  the  decline  of 
tiie  guano  trade  in  years  past,  it  is  certain  that  the  revival  of  the  industry  will  find  Peru 
better  able  to  profit  by  its  blessings  than  formerly,  when  the  possession  of  an  apparently 
inexliaustible  treasure  led  to  reckless  expenditure  and  resulted  in  the  financial  difficulties 
tliat  an  unlimited  credit,  continually  drawn  upon,  invariably  produces.  In  Alejandro 
Garland's  recent  book  on  Peru,  an  interesting  history  of  the  guano  trade  is  given,  which 
places  particular  emphasis  on  the  evils  that  developed  out  of  its  phenomenal  growth  and 
peculiar  conditions. 

In  1840,  when  the  sale  of  guano  first  began  to  figure  in  the  government  receipts,  the 
total  revenues  of  the  country  did  not  exceed  three  million  dollars.  Ten  years  later, 
the  government  revenue  from  guano  alone  was  more  than  five  million  dollars.  The 
demand  for  the  product  increased  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  the  annual  exports  rose  to 
two  liundred  thousand  tons.  This  rapid  increase  in  the  guano  trade  was  largely  due  to  the 
activity  of  the  consignees,  in  whose  hands  the  government  placed  it  for  sale,  and  their 


v.,^k-  v*n 


THE   PELICAN   AT   HOME. 


influence  in  the  financial  affairs  of  the  country  became  very  great.    Every  financial  difficulty 
that  arose  at  that  time  was  met  by  mortgaging  the  future  returns  from  the  sale  of  guano ; 


286 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


and  Peru,  counting  on  the  extraordinary  and  abundant  revenue  from  this  source  met  all 
the  demands  of  the  government  without  recourse  to  taxation, — a  condition  unheard-of 
elsewhere  in  tlie  financial  history  of  the  world. 


GUANO   ISLANDS   OF   LOBOS   DE   TIERRA. 


But  guano,  though  it  brought  to  the  Peruvian  treasury  the  enormous  sum  of  two 
hundred  and  twenty  million  dollars  between  the  years  1840  and  1867,  brought  also  such 
habits  of  extravagance  in  the  government,  that,  not  only  did  the  entire  sum  disappear 
without  adequate  recompense  to  the  country,  but,  at  the  time  when  General  Mariano 
Ignacio  Prado  assumed  the  dictatorship,  with  Don  Manuel  Pardo  as  his  Finance  Minister, 
the  public  debt  was  forty-five  million  dollars,  besides  which,  the  government  also 
owed  the  consignees  of  guano  fifteen  million  dollars.  Don  Manuel  Pardo  sought  to 
organize  the  finances  of  the  nation  on  a  more  solid  basis,  independent  of  guano,  by  estab- 
lishing permanent  resources  in  the  form  of  taxes  and  export  duties ;  but  the  fatal  glamour 
of  wealth  with  which  guano  had  dazzled  the  nation,  cast  his  labor  into  the  shade,  and  the 
existing  evil  was  increased  in  the  succeeding  administration,  though  the  intention  of 
the  energetic  and  public-spirited  statesman.  President  Balta,  was  to  put  an  end  to  the 
mismanagement  of  guano  funds  by  employing  this  resource  in  the  construction  of  railways 
and  other  public  works. 

In  the  meantime,  nitrate,  a  powerful  rival  of  guano,  had  been  discovered  in  the  desert 
of  Tarapaca,  then  the  southernmost  province  of  Peru.    The  companies  engaged  in  extracting 


THE  l^EALTH  OF  THE  GUANO  ISLANDS 


287 


nitrate,  of  which  about  five  million  quintals  were  exported  annually,  were  competing  with 
one  another  so  closely  that  the  low  prices  established  by  them  threatened  to  ruin  both  the 
guano  and  the  nitrate  business;  and  President  Manuel  Pardo,  in  order  to  raise  the  selling 


DIGGING  GUANO 


CHINCHA  ISLANDS. 


price  of  both  products,  with  a  view  to  increasing  the  revenues  of  the  nation,  put  into  force 
a  government  monopoly  of  nitrate.  As  a  result  of  the  war  with  Chile  which  follo\yed, 
the  nitrate  fields  of  Tarapaca  passed  into  the  possession  of  that  country.  The  evils  of 
competition  again  threatened  to  ruin  the  trade,  until,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Chilean 
government,  a  system  of  limiting  the  production  was  adopted,  which  remains  in  force. 
What  Peru  lost  in  the  nitrate  fields  of  Tarapaca  may  be  estimated  from  the  statistics  of 
Chile,  which  show  the  revenue  from  the  export  of  nitrate  and  iodine  (the  latter  obtained  in 
the  preparation  of  nitrate)  to  be  five  million  pounds  sterling  yearly,  nearly  three-fourths  of 
all  Chile's  exports  being  from  the  nitrate  fields. 

Peru  lost  the  revenues  from  both  guano  and  nitrate  under  the  same  stroke,  and  during 
the  years  that  immediately  followed,  the  country  passed  through  the  darkest  period  of  its 
history.  But,  as  this  experience  served  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  nation  to  the  more 
permanent  riches  of  this  great  territory,  the  loss  of  its  most  attractive  possessions  cannot  be 
regarded  as  an  unmixed  evil.     From  an  abundance  of  wealth,  Peru  was  suddenly  plunged 


288 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


into  great  poverty.  But,  as  with  individuals,  so  with  nations, — the  test  of  the  spirit  lies  in 
its  strength  to  meet  adversity  and  overcome  the  discouragement  that  follows  in  its  path; 
and  this  test  the  Peruvian  people  met  by  resolutely  facing  the  task  of  building  up  their 
shattered  fortunes  through  the  development  of  the  national  industries.  Their  territory  is 
rich  in  agricultural  products  and  minerals;  the  rubber  and  hardwoods  of  the  forest  are 
treasures  of  immense  value;  and  the  people  have  grown  to  realize  the  full  importance 
of  developing  these  unlimited  resources.  As  a  result,  the  sun  of  prosperity  has  again  risen 
over  the  land ;  and  in  the  warmth  of  his  beams,  the  harvests  shed  ever-increasing  blessings 
and  the  hearts  of  the  people  expand  with  content. 


A  GUANO   PORT,  CHINCHA   ISLANDS 


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CHAPTER  XX 


CALLAO,  THE   CHIEF   SEAPORT   OF   PERU— STEAMSHIP   LINES 


/^^ALLAO,  the  chief  seaport  of  Peru,  and  one 
of  the  most  important  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
possesses  an  especial  historical  as  well  as  com- 
mercial interest.  As  the  City  of  the  Kings  was 
the  centre  of  political  and  social  authority  under 
the  viceroyalty,  Callao  was  the  headquarters  of 
its  trade,  the  counting-house  in  which  business 
operations  connected  with  the  colonial  service 
were  carried  on.  All  ships  that  traded  between 
Spain  and  its  vast  Peruvian  provinces  were 
obliged  to  load  and  discharge  their  cargo  in  this 
port,  where  every  article  was  registered  and  the 
king's  duties  were  collected.  The  first  buildings 
of  the  port  were  erected  in  i^^y,  two  years  after 
Pizarro  founded  Lima;  but  it  was  not  until  a 
hundred  and  thirty-four  years  later,  in  167 1,  that 
Callao  was  dignified  with  the  title  of  city.  In 
the  intervening  period,  the  increasing  wealth  and 
prosperity  of  the  viceroyalty  and  the  importance 
of  its  trade  attracted  pirates  to  the  coast,  the  har- 
bor of  Callao  being  made  the  chief  point  of 
attack,  as  in  the  case  of  Drake  and  Cavendish, 
elsewhere  referred  to,  and  of  the  Dutch  pirates 
who  came  later.  These  invasions,  though  they 
wrought  great  damage  to  the  city,  were  forgotten  in  the  flourishing  period  that  followed, 
when  Callao  grew  to  be  the  richest  port  of  the  Pacific  and  its  harbor  was  constantly  thronged 
with  vessels  bringing  in  merchandise  of  all  kinds,  or  loading  precious  cargoes  of  gold  and 

silver  for  the  metropolis. 

291 


MONUMENT  TO  ADMIRAL  GRAU.   CALLAO. 


292 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


A  greater  catastrophe  than  the  invasion  of  pirates  befell  the  seaport  in  the  height  of  its 
prosperity,  when,  on  the  28th  of  October,  1746,  a  terrible  earthquake,  accompanied  by  a 
tidal  wave  of  tremendous  volume,  completely  destroyed  the  city,  about  six  thousand  people 


THE   DOCKS  AT   CALLAO. 


perishing  in  the  sea  that  swept  over  the  falling  buildings  in  a  deluge.  The  task  of  rebuilding 
began  at  once,  though  not  on  the  same  site,  which  has  ever  since  remained  under  the  sea. 
The  location  of  the  submerged  city  is  indicated  between  the  points  of  Independencia  and 
Camotal,  south  of  the  present  site,  and  in  that  part  of  the  bay  called  the  Mar  Bmva  (rough 
sea).  For  many  years  after  this  calamity,  a  sentry  was  stationed  on  tlie  beach  to  take 
charge  of  any  treasure  that  might  be  washed  ashore,  and  this  post  was  not  dispensed  with 
until  after  the  inauguration  of  the  republic.  When  the  new  city  was  built,  the  port  was 
fortified  and  placed  in  charge  of  a  strong  military  garrison.  The  part  played  by  this  garrison 
in  the  last  days  of  the  viceroyalty  is  well  known,  its  surrender  was  the  signal  of  defeat  to 
the  royalist  cause  in  Peru. 

The  foreigner  who  first  sees  the  harbor  and  city  of  Callao  from  the  deck  of  a  steamer, 
finds  the  view  such  a  pleasing  contrast  to  anything  the  neighboring  harbors  have  to  offer, 
that  he  is  not  disposed  to  find  fault  even  with  the  barren  aspect  of  San  Lorenzo  to  the 
south,  and  the  monotonous  line  of  houses  facing  the  water  front;  he  is  charmed  with 
the  beautiful  green  of  the  Rimac  valley  to  the  north,  the  distant  glimpse  of  Lima's  church 


CALLAO,  THE  CHIEF  SEAPORT  OF  PERU— STEAMSHIP  LINES       29 j 

towers,  and  behind  them  the  purple  hills  that  hide  their  summits  above  the  clouds.  There 
is  much  to  enjoy  also  in  the  busy  scene  of  the  harbor;  vessels  of  all  nations  are  loading 
and  discharging  their  cargoes,  tugs  bustle  about,  and,  while  the  pompous  whistle  of 
modern  steamers  announces  their  arrival,  the  graceful  sailing  ship  glides  silently  into  port, 
maintaining  with  dignity  the  credit  of  the  good  old  days,  in  the  face  of  these  rival  parvenus 
of  twentieth  century  transportation. 

Nearly  all  passengers  landing  at  Callao  proceed  immediately  to  Lima,  and,  as  soon  as 
the  routine  of  the  custom  house  is  fmished,  there  is  a  general  rush  for  the  train  or  the 
electric  street  car  which  runs  to  the  capital.  If  the  foreigner  were  to  be  asked  his  first 
impression  of  Callao,  he  would  probably  give  a  confused  description  of  a  place  remembered 
only  for  its  Custom  House,  the  narrow  irregular  streets  and  old-fashioned  houses  of  the 
water-front,  and  tlie  railway  tracks  to  be  crossed  on  the  way  to  the  Station.  But  those 
who  have  seen  Callao  under  more  favorable  circumstances  have  found  many  attractions  in 
the  social  life  of  its  kind  and  hospitable  people  and  much  to  admire  in  the  city  itself. 
Under  the  present  administration,  important  improvements  are  being  carried  to  completion, 
notably  the  work  of  canalization,  which  means  a  great  deal  to  the  healthfulness  of  the 
city.  Block  pavements  have  been  laid  in  the  principal  streets,  the  question  of  sanitation  has 
received  special  attention,  and  everything  indicates  a  spirit  of  progress  active  in  public  affairs. 


THE  CUSTOM  HOUSE.  CALLAO. 


The  public  buildings  of  Callao  are  situated  chiefly  in  the  central  part  of  the  city,  on  one 
of  tlie  numerous  squares,  or  plazas.  The  most  conspicuous  of  these  edifices  is  the  custom 
house,  the  chief  aduana  of  the  republic.     It  occupies  the  site  formerly  enclosed  in  the 


294 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEPV  PERU 


STATUE   OF   THE   LIBERATOR,  CALLAO. 


city's  fortresses,  and  is  a  spacious  building; 
though,  it  is  claimed,  the  accommodations  do 
not  fulfil  the  requirements  of  an  establishment 
of  this  kind,  as  the  first  custom  house  of  Peru. 
The  post  office  building  is  a  solid,  well-built 
structure,  overlooking  the  plaza;  the  prefecture 
occupies  a  large  and  commodious  building,  the 
lower  part  of  which  is  used  for  the  offices  of 
the  police  authorities,  the  Junta  Departmental, 
the  treasury  and  the  criminal  court;  the  civil 
court  holds  its  sessions  elsewhere.  Callao  has  a 
town  council,  a  chamber  of  commerce,  an  excel- 
lent fire  brigade  composed  of  four  companies,  a 
benevolent  society  which  maintains  the  hospitals 
of  Guadalupe  and  San  Juan  de  Dios,  several 
churches,  and  three  social  clubs.  There  are  two 
protestant  churches  in  the  city  and  two  foreign 
clubs.  The  English  Club  has  its  headquarters 
in  a  building  overlooking  the  bay;  its  broad 
verandahs,  adorned  with  shrubs  and  plants,  present  a  very  attractive  picture  from  the 
landing-place.  For  amusement,  there  is  a  theatre  and  a  bull  ring,  and  lovers  of  sport  have 
their  ritle  and  regatta  clubs,  besides  which  there  is  also  the  Naval  Club  and  the  Italian 
Club.  In  the  principal  plazas  of  the  city,  monuments  have  been  erected  in  honor  of  the 
national  heroes.  The  Plaza  Grau  has  a  handsome  monument  in  memory  of  the  heroic  com- 
mander of  the  Huascar;  a  statue  of  General  San  Martin  adorns  the  beautiful  Plaza  Matriz ; 
and  in  the  Plaza  "  Dos  de  Mayo  "  stands  a  marble  pillar,  supporting  a  bust  of  the  hero  Jose 
Galvez,  Minister  of  War,  who  was  killed  in  the  naval  battle  of  1866,  in  the  bay  of  Callao. 

The  constitutional  province  of  Callao  was  created  by  a  decree  of  the  supreme  govern- 
ment in  1836,  the  name  "constitutional"  being  bestowed  by  law  in  1857,  in  remembrance 
of  various  occasions  when  its  people  had  defended  the  constitution  of  the  State.  The 
province  extends  from  the  Rimac  River  on  the  north  to  the  Mar  Brava  on  the  south,  and 
from  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  west  to  the  haciendas  Chacra  Alta,  Taboada,  and  La  Legua  on 
the  east.  It  includes  the  city  of  Callao,  the  wards,  or  barrios,  of  Bella  Vista  and  La  Punta, 
and  the  islands  of  San  Lorenzo,  Fronton,  Palominos,  Hormigos  de  Afuera,  and  neighboring 
rocks.  The  province  is  governed  by  a  prefect,  an  intendant  of  police,  commissaries  and 
governors.  Bella  Vista  and"  La  Punta  are  under  the  authority  of  commissaries.  The  present 
population  of  Callao  is  thirty-five  thousand,  of  which  one-tenth  are  foreigners.  Its  chief 
industries  are  those  connected  with  maritime  traffic,  though  the  city  has  also  a  number  of 
factories  and  flour  mills.  The  port  is  connected  with  the  capital  by  telegraph  and  telephone 
systems,  and  with  all  the  cities  of  the  world  by  the  Central  and  South  American  Telegraph 


CALLAO,  THE  CHIEF  SEAPORT  OF  PERU— STEAMSHIP  LINES       29; 


I     i?^ 


UNLOADING   LUMBER   AT   CALLAO. 


Company,  and  the  West 
Coast  of  America  Telegraph 
Company.  Most  of  the 
consular  offices  are  located 
in  Callao,  which  is  within 
twenty  minutes'  ride  of 
Lima,  on  the  electric  car.  A 
business  man  may  reside  at 
the  capital  without  any  in- 
convenience in  getting  to 
and  from  his  office.  The 
ride  itself  is  a  pleasant /'JSt'o, 
across  open  country,  with 
agreeable  scenes  all  the  way. 

Bella  Vista  is  situated  a  mile  east  of  Callao,  where  it  was  founded  after  the  earthquake 
of  1 746,  by  order  of  the  viceroy,  the  Count  of  Superunda.  Here  the  ship-owners,  who  had 
charge  of  the  coasting  trade  at  that  time,  made  their  homes;  and  here  were  established  ware- 
houses for  the  storage  of  wheat  purchased  from  Chile  to  supply  the  market  of  Lima  and 
its  neighborhood  during  the  viceroyalty.  These  old  buildings  have  now  been  replaced  by 
modern  storehouses.  In  1834,  the  government  of  Peru  ceded  to  the  British  Legation  a  piece 
of  land  for  the  purpose  of  a  Protestant  cemetery,  and  here  many  distinguished  foreigners  have 
been  laid  to  rest.  A  mausoleum,  erected  by  the  Peruvian  nation  as  a  proof  of  gratitude  to  the 
hero  of  the  Independence,  marks  the  grave  of  General  Miller,  San  Martin's  faithful  follower. 
La  Punta  is  the  favorite  bathing  resort  of  Callao  and  of  the  capital,  its  beach  being 
thronged  throughout  the  summer  season.     Its  situation  marks  the  southern  limit  of  the 

harbor,  to  which  it  forms  a 
protection  from  the  south- 
east winds,  stretching  out 
for  more  than  a  mile  into 
the  sea.  The  harbor  is 
usually  entered  from  the 
north,  the  narrow  passage 
between  La  Punta  and  the 
island  of  San  Lorenzo,  on 
the  south,  being  seldom  fre- 
quented. The  bay  is  large 
and  affords  safe  anchorage 
for  ships  at  all  times  of  the 
year.  The  only  islands  in 
the  vicinity  are  San  Lorenzo, 


296 


THE  OLD  ^ND   THE  MEM/  PERU 


Fronton,  Palominos,  and  a  few  small  rocks.  San  Lorenzo  is  used  as  a  depository  for  explo- 
sives, and  from  its  quarries  are  taken  stones  for  paving  and  other  purposes ;  besides  which 
it  provides  a  good  cement  for  construction  work.  On  the  little  island  of  Palominos,  south  of 
San  Lorenzo,  stands  a  lighthouse,  with  a  revolving  light  visible  eighteen  miles  distant.  The 
government  of  Peru  is  putting  up  new  lighthouses  all  along  its  coast,  thus  meeting  an 
urgent  need.  Another  demand  which  is  being  met  with  especial  endeavor  is  the  improve- 
ment of  all  the  docks  and  landing-places  of  the  various  ports  of  the  republic.  Callao's 
dock  and  wharf,  called  the  Muelle  Darsena,  is  built  so  that  ships  may  disembark  passengers 
and  cargo  directly  on  shore,  without  requiring,  as  in  nearly  all  other  ports  of  the  Pacific, 
canoes  and  lighters  to  transfer  them.  In  some  ports  of  the  West  Coast,  both  in  North  and 
South  America,  the  passengers  are  swung  over  the  ship's  side  in  baskets ;  but,  though  the 
novelty  of  the  experience  may  have  its  charm,  this  is  not  a  very  comfortable  mode  of 
landing.  The  Muelle  Darsena  at  Callao  permits  of  ships  of  large  tonnage  anchoring  close  to 
its  wharf.  It  encloses  a  space  covering  more  than  fifty  thousand  square  metres,  has  a  pier 
one  hundred  and  eighty  metres  long,  formed  by  the  extension  of  one  of  its  side  walls,  and 
connects  with  the  shore  by  means  of  a  bridge  nine  hundred  metres  long,  constructed  on 
iron  piles.  In  addition  to  the  Muelle  Darsena,  the  port  of  Callao  has  a  floating  dock  with 
capacity  to  admit  vessels  drawing  twenty-one  feet  of  water  and  registering  five  thousand 
tons;  and  another  floating  dock  is  under  construction  which  will  admit  vessels  of  up  to 
seven  thousand  tons'  register.  During  the  past  year  many  improvements  have  been 
initiated,  one  of  the  most  important  being  the  plan  of  fortifying  the  port,  in  accordance  with 

the  best  modern  system.  A 
new  embankment,  or  break- 
water, the  "Malecon  Figue- 
redo,"  is  under  construction, 
which  will  add  greatly  to 
the  attractiveness  as  well 
as  the  protection  of  that 
part  of  the  city  which  over- 
looks the  harbor.  In  this 
work,  the  supreme  govern- 
ment cooperates  with  the 
Junta  Departmental  and  the 
municipality,  all  being  bene- 
fited by  its  results.  In 
giving  attention  to  the  im- 
provements that  contribute 
to  make  Callao  a  better  port, 
the  government  believes  that  the  commerce  of  the  country  will  be  greatly  advanced  thereby. 
Callao  is  now  visited  annually  by  five  hundred  steamers  and  more  than  a  thousand  sailing 


PIER    OF    THE   ARSENAL,   CALLAO. 


CALL/IO,  THE  CHIEF  SEAPORT  OF  PERU— STEAMSHIP  LINES       297 


PASSENGERS  LANDING  AT   ETEN   FROM  A  STEAMER  OF  THE   PACIFIC   LINE. 


vessels  besides  the  smaller  craft  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade.  Every  day  in  the  year,  one 
may  count  twenty  or  more  steamers  and  twice  as  many  sailing  ships  anchored  in  the  harbor. 

The  most  important 
steamship  companies  of 
tlie  world  are  represented 
in  tiie  lines  which  include 
the  port  of  Callao  in  their 
itinerary.  The  first  com- 
pany to  send  steamers  to 
the  Pacific  Coast  was  or- 
ganized largely  through 
the  initiative  of  shippers 
in  this  port.  The  Pacific 
Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany, incorporated  in 
England  by  Royal  Char- 
ter in  1840,  began  its  ser- 
vice on  the  Pacific  Coast 
under  the  usual  difficul- 
ties   attending    pioneer 

efforts.  The  working  of  the  line  was  impeded  by  innumerable  drawbacks.  At  first  it  was  a 
purely  coastal  service  and  the  mails,  passengers  and  through  traffic  had  to  be  conveyed 
across  the  isthmus  of  Panama  on  mules.  Then  the  Panama  railroad  was  built  and  the 
traffic  was  fostered;  but  the  rates  across  the  isthmus  were  very  high  and  the  difficulties  that 
attended  the  despatching  of  through  traffic  were  so  discouraging  that  the  Pacific  Company 
instituted  a  line  of  steamers  between  Liverpool  and  Valparaiso  via  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  to 
connect  with  the  coast  service  plying  between  that  port  and  Panama.  Later,  the  line  from 
Liverpool  waS  extended  to  Callao,  and  for  many  years  this  port  was  the  headquarters  of  the 
company,  until,  in  1896,  owing  to  a  falling  off  in  trade  after  the  decline  of  the  guano  indus- 
try, the  chief  offices  were  transferred  to  Valparaiso.  Of  late  years,  however,  the  company 
has  greatly  increased  its  fleet,  and  a  special  line  of  passenger  and  cargo  boats  has  been  put 
on  for  service  to  Peruvian  ports.  From  a  small  commencement  with  two  wooden  paddle 
steamers  of  seven  hundred  tons'  register,  as  described  by  Mr.  Frederick  Alcock  in  his  book 
Trade  and  Travel  in  South  America,  the  fleet  has  grown  until  its  register  now  approximates 
two  hundred  thousand  tons.  Its  new  steamer,  the  Orcoma,  has  a  tonnage  of  eleven 
thousand  five  hundred,  and  the  Orita  registers  nine  thousand  two  hundred  and  sixty-five 
tons;  in  addition  to  these  handsome  floating  palaces,  the  fleet  numbers  eighteen  twin-screw 
steamers  of  lesser  tonnage,  all  of  modern  construction  and  commodious  service.  Of  these, 
the  Oriana,  Ortega,  and  Oronsa,  are  the  largest  and  most  noted  for  comfort  and  elegance. 
At  Chucuito,  near  Callao,  where  the  company  owns  a  large  property,  the  stores  and  works 


298 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEM^  PERU 


are  being  enlarged  and  improved.  The  Pacific  steamers  connect  with  those  of  the  Royal 
Mail  both  at  Panama  and  Buenos  Aires,  the  latter  having  no  line  on  the  west  coast  of 
America,  though  its  magnificent  fleet  ploughs  all  the  seas,  from  Southampton  to  Panama, 
to  Brazil  and  Argentina,  to  the  Mediterranean,  Suez  Canal  and  India,  and,  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  to  China  and  Australia. 

In  addition  to  the  Pacific  Steamship  Line,  there  are  numerous  others  trading  along  the 
west  coast  of  South  America,  all  of  which  call  at  the  port  of  Callao.  The  South  American 
Steamship  Company  of  Chile  has  steamers  every  week  from  Valparaiso  to  Panama  and  the 
ports  of  Peru.  The  Kosmos  Line  connects  the  European  ports  of  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Ant- 
werp, and  Havre  with  San  Francisco,  California,  via  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  west  coast 
ports  of  South  America.  The  "  Merchant  Line  "  carries  on  a  direct  trade  between  New  York 
and  Callao,  and  the  Japanese  Steamship  Company  connects  the  Peruvian  ports  with  Japan. 

Almost  all  the  American  and  European  steamship  companies  have  lines  to  Panama, 
including  the  Panama  Railway  Steamship  Company  and  the  Leyland  Line,  from  New  York; 
the  Royal  Mail,  from  New  York  and  England;  the  Hamburg-Pacific,  from  Germany;  the 
Compagnie  General  Transatlantique,  from  France ;  the  Veloce,  from  Italy ;  the  Transatlantica 
Espafiola,  from  Spain;  and  the  Pacific  Mail,  from  San  Francisco.  As  soon  as  the  Canal  is 
open  for  traffic,  all  these  lines  will  extend  tlieir  itinerari-es  to  Callao,  which  is  destined  to 
be  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  South  Pacific. 


PREFECTURE,  CALLAO. 


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CHAPTER  XXI 


AGRICULTURE   AND   IRRIGATION   ON   THE   COAST 


T^HE  increasing  importance  of  Peru's  sea- 
^  port  trade  is  largely  due  to  the  prosperous 
development  of  agriculture,  which  is  annually 
becoming  a  more  valuable  source  of  revenue 
to  the  country.  Nearly  all  the  steamers  that 
visit  Callao  call  also  at  other  Peruvian  ports, 
the  coast  being  dotted  from  Tumbes  to  Arica 
with  flourishing  harbors,  in  which  may  be 
seen  trading  vessels  of  all  nations.  From  the 
valleys  of  the  coast  region  are  shipped  im- 
mense quantities  of  sugar  and  important  car- 
goes of  the  famous  Peruvian  cotton,  grown 
exclusively  in  this  country,  besides  tobacco, 
rice,  coffee,  and  a  variety  of  fruits.  Agricul- 
ture is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  people  in 
this  part  of  Peru,  and  the  employment  of 
modern  methods  in  its  development  is  lead- 
ing to  wonderful  results. 

The  conditions  that  govern  agriculture 
on  the  Peruvian  coast  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  Nile  valley,  as  regards  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  climate,  and  fertilization.  Wherever  a 
stream  crosses  the  sandy  strip  between  the  Cordilleras  and  the  sea,  the  valley  along  its 
course  is  made  richly  productive,  and  yields  abundant  harvests.  Every  effort  is  being  put 
forth  by  the  government  to  increase  the  irrigable  territory  by  distributing  the  water  of  the 
rivers  to  the  best  advantage  and  by  sinking  artesian  wells  wherever  practicable.    The  special 

code  which  governs  irrigation  on  the  coast  has  recently  been  reformed  so  as  to  admit  of  a 

301 


PICTURESQUE  GARDEN  ON  A  RICE  PLANTATION. 


302 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEH^  PERU 


more  general  utilization  of  the  water  supply  from  the  rivers;  and  experienced  hydraulic 
engineers  from  the  Geological  Survey  Department  of  Washington,  District  of  Columbia, 


IRRIGATING   CANAL   ON  A  PIURA   PLANTATION. 


have  been  engaged  to  study  the  geology  of  the  coast,  the  courses  of  its  streams,  its  subter- 
ranean waters,  etc.,  in  order  that,  from  correct  knowledge,  the  best  means  may  be  employed 
to  utilize  its  moisture  so  as  to  benefit  the  greatest  possible  area. 

At  present,  not  more  than  two  million  acres  of  coast  lands  are  planted,  out  of  a  culti- 
vable territory  of  fifty  million  acres,  showing  that  the  farming  industry  is  still  in  the  infancy 
of  its  development.  But  the  harvests  actually  secured,  with  comparatively  little  effort  and 
expense,  are  in  some  cases  phenomenal,  and  always  abundant.  When  once  the  entire  area 
is  brought  under  the  plough,  Peru  will  have  in  its  coast  farms  greater  wealth  than  its  mines 
have  ever  yielded.  Not  only  through  want  of  irrigation  is  the  productive  area  much  less 
than  it  would  otherwise  be,  but  the  lack  of  laborers  to  cultivate  the  land  is  a  serious  draw- 
back. Some  of  the  large  haciendas  contain  extensive  fields  of  fertile  soil  that  remain  unfilled 
because  the  owners  have  not  sufficient  capital,  or  a  large  enough  staff  of  workmen  to 
undertake  their  development. 

But,  in  compensation  for  its  difficulties,  agriculture  has  many  advantages  on  the  coast 
of  Peru.     No  sudden  changes  of  temperature  occur  to  alarm  the  planter,  there  are  no 


AGRICULTURE  AND  IRRIGATION  ON  THE  COAST 


P3 


destructive  storms,  and  the  fear  of  drought  does  not  exist,  because  the  system  of  artificial 
irrigation  permits  of  the  fields  being  watered  or  left  dry  at  the  owner's  discretion.  Sugar, 
the  chief  product  of  the  coast  country,  is  cultivated  all  the  year  round,  the  cutting  of  cane 
taking  place  without  interruption  on  the  great  plantations  that  stretch  along  its  valleys. 
Tumbes,  Piura,  Lambayeque,  La  Libertad,  Ancash,  Lima,  lea,  Arequipa,  and  Tacna  have 
extensive  sugar  plantations,  though  from  lea  southward,  little  is  exported.  The  chief 
sugar-growing  districts  of  the  soutliern  coast  region  are  Cafiete,  in  the  Department  of  Lima, 
and  Chincha,  in  the  Department  of  lea.  From  their  seaports,  Cerro  Azul  and  Tambo  de 
Mora,  large  cargoes  are  shipped  to  foreign  countries,  as  well  as  from  the  port  of  Pisco,  at 
which  all  the  ocean  steamers  and  sailing  vessels  of  the  west  coast  call  to  receive  and 
discharge  merchandise.  The  large  sugar  estates  of  Cafiete  and  Chincha  are  conducted 
according  to  modern  methods,  those  of  the  British  Sugar  Company  and  the  haciendas  of 
San  Jose  and  Laran  being  the  most  important  in  extent  and  production.  The  great  centre 
of  the  sugar  industry  in  Peru  is  the  Chicama  valley,  in  the  Department  of  La  Libertad, 
where  the  average  production  reaches  four  tons  to  the  acre,  a  larger  return  than  is  secured 
in  any  other  sugar-growing  country.    The  total  quantity  of  sugar  produced  annually  in 


LOADING   SUGAR-CANE,   SANTA    BARBARA    PLANTATION.  CANETE. 


Peru  amounts  to  about  two  hundred  thousand  tons,  of  which  the  greater  part  is  grown  on 
the  coast,  more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tons  being  exported.     It  is  estimated 


?o4 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEPV  PERU 


that  the  value  of  the  year's  harvest  averages  between  eight  and  nine  million  dollars.     In 
nearly  all  the  coast  districts,  flourishing  cotton  plantations  may  be  seen,  though  the  valleys 


PIER   AND   WAREHOUSES   OF   THE   BRITISH   SUGAR    COMl'ANY,  LIMITED.  AT   CERRO  AZUL. 


of  Piura  are  most  celebrated  for  the  successful  raising  of  this  product,  which  occupies  the 
second  place  among  the  agricultural  exports  of  Peru,  the  annual  shipments  amounting  to 
twenty  thousand  tons,  with  a  prospect  of  rapid  increase,  owing  to  the  added  extent  of  terri- 
tory annually  placed  under  cultivation,  in  the  valleys  of  Huacho  and  Supe,  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Lima,  the  famous  "Sea  Island"  cotton  is  grown,  and  all  the  coast  states  produce  the 
"Egyptian"  and  "Mitafifi"  varieties.  Peruvian  cotton  is  exported  only  from  Piura  and  lea. 
In  the  northern  coast  region,  notably  in  Lambayeque  and  in  the  province  of  Pacasmayo, 
in  La  Libertad,  the  culture  of  rice  receives  especial  attention,  with  the  most  satisfactory 
results.  Modern  methods  are  employed  by  the  planters  of  this  zone  to  increase  the 
production,  which  now  averages  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  bags  (one  hundred  and 
ninety  pounds  each)  annually.  The  rice  of  Peru  is  equal  to  the  best  grown  in  other  parts 
of  the  world.  Two  varieties  are  cultivated,  the  "Carolina"  and  the  "Jamaica,"  the  former 
being  more  prolific,  though  the  "Jamaica"  gives  a  whiter  grain  and  is  more  easily  hulled. 
In  good  years,  the  harvest  amounts  to  fifteen  bags  to  the  acre,  and  the  cost  of  production, 
from  the  planting  of  the  seed  to  the  harvesting  and  threshing  of  the  grain,  is  about  eight 
dollars,  gold,  per  acre.  The  value  of  the  rice  crop  varies  greatly,  but  the  present  average  is 
not  less  than  half  a  million  pounds  sterling. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  IRRIGATION  ON  THE  COAST 


30J 


In  the  Peruvian  rice  fields,  the  iiarvesting  begins  five  months  after  planting;  the  rice  is 
then  gathered  and  sent  to  the  mill  to  be  hulled,  the  larger  estates  having  their  own  rice- 
mills,  provided  with  all  the  latest  improvements.  The  Chiclayo  valley,  the  chief  centre  of 
the  rice-growing  region,  is  fertilized  by  the  Chancay,  Sana  and  Leche  Rivers,  and  their 
tributaries.  From  the  Chancay  River,  at  a  point  called  Puntilla,  an  irrigating  canal,  the 
Taimy,  crosses  the  valley,  watering  the  estates  in  the  district  of  Ferrenafe,  which  is  in 
the  heart  of  the  rice  country.  From  the  seaport  of  Eten,  a  railway  extends  inland  for  fifty 
miles,  passing  the  principal  towns,  rice  fields  and  sugar  plantations  of  the  department.  It  is 
a  standard  gauge  line,  and  the  cars  are  of  modern  construction.  The  port  of  Eten  is  inter- 
esting chiefly  as  the  gateway  to  the  rich  country  behind  it,  though  the  town  itself  is 
constantly  growing  and  improving.  The  most  conspicuous  feature  of  the  port,  as  seen 
from  an  incoming  steamer,  is  its  long  pier,  which  extends  two  thousand  seven  hundred 
feet  out  into  the  sea,  and  is  provided  with  steam  winches  having  capacity  for  disposing  of 
seven  hundred  tons  of  cargo  daily.  Similar  piers  have  been  built  at  Pacasmayo,  Salaverry, 
Pisco,  and  other  ports.  The  railway  from  Eten,  after  leaving  the  port  and  passing  Monsefu 
and  Chiclayo, — the  latter  the  capital  of  Lambayeque, — traverses  the  beautiful  valleys  where 
the  rice  fields  stretch  out  like  a  green  carpet  along  the  banks  of  the  river.    Great  haciendas, 


FERRENAFE,  A  TLOURISHING   CENTRE  OF   THE   RICE   INDUSTRY. 


of  extensive  acreage,  speak  volumes  in  praise  of  the  enterprise  and  energy  of  the  pro- 
prietors, in  a  region  less  than  seven  degrees  from  the  equator  and  almost  at  sea  level. 


306 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


Pomalca,  Combo,  Tuman,  Patapo,  and    other  important  plantations,  are  provided  with 
American  agricultural  implements  and  have  the  latest  machinery  of  all  kinds  in  their  fields 


A  HOLIDAY    IN    CHICLAYO. 


and  rice  mills.    Sugar  is  also  grown  in  these  valleys,  the  annual  harvest  amounting  to 
twenty-five  thousand  tons. 

Although  La  Libertad  is  called  the  "  Sugar  State  "  of  Peru,  Piura  its  "  Cotton  Belt,"  and 
Lambayeque  the  rice-growing  centre,  yet  all  these  products  are  cultivated  also  in  the  fertile 
valleys  of  Ancash,  which  is  one  of  tlie  richest  and  most  promising  departments  of  the 
republic,  comprising,  within  its  twenty  thousand  square  miles,  the  regions  both  of  the  coast 
and  the  sierra.  It  has  excellent  harbors,  abundance  of  irrigation,  a  great  variety  of  resources 
and  a  healthful  climate.  The  sugar  farms  and  rice  fields  of  Ancash  are  chiefly  located  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  state,  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Santa  River,  and  in  the  region 
of  Samanco  and  Casma.  All  this  territory  is  particularly  adapted  to  agriculture  and  is 
destined  to  be  one  of  the  richest  centres  of  Peruvian  industry.  The  magnificent  bay  of 
Chimbote,  covering  a  surface  of  thirty-six  square  miles,  affords  shelter  for  the  largest  ships 
and  is  one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the  west  coast  of  South  America ;  it  is  free  from  sand- 
banks and  hidden  rocks,  and  never  gets  the  rough  seas  that  sometimes  break  over  the 
shores  of  other  ports  along  the  coast  of  Peru.  Before  the  war  with  Chile,  a  railway  was 
under  construction  to  connect  the  port  with  the  capital,  Huaraz,  and  half  the  road  was 


AGRICULTURE  AND  IRRIGATION  ON  THE  COAST 


307 


WORKMEN  ON  A  COAST   PLANTATION. 


completed  when  the  war  broke  out.  All  the  workshops  and  factories  were  destroyed  by  the 
invading  troops,  who  set  fire  to  the  fields  of  sugar-cane  and  blew  up  the  farm  houses  with 
dynamite.  This  catastro- 
phe paralyzed  the  prog- 
ress of  the  valley  for  some 
years,  but,  under  renew- 
ed enterprise,  the  outlook 
is  very  bright  for  future 
prosperity.  The  railway 
is  being  built  again  and 
will  soon  be  completed 
to  the  capital  of  the 
department,  thus  afford- 
ing facilities  of  transpor- 
tation for  the  products 
of  the  sierra  as  well 
as  those  of  the  valleys. 
Abundant  water-power  is 
available  for  engineering 
and    other    enterprises. 

None  of  the  agricultural  products  above  named  are  confined  to  the  coast  region.    In  the 
lower  inter-Andean  valleys  and  on  the  higher  levels  of  the  Montana  sugar,  cotton,  and  rice 

are  successfully  grown,  though 
not  as  the  chief  industry,  except 
in  the  case  of  sugar,  which  is  a 
staple  product  of  all  the  interior 
valleys.  Tobacco  thrives  better 
in  the  interior  than  on  the  coast, 
though  the  province  of  Tumbes 
produces  some  of  the  best  to- 
bacco of  South  America.  Maize 
is  cultivated  in  every  depart- 
ment, and  in  every  region  except 
on  the  high  puna.  It  may  be 
seen  growing  on  the  plantations 
of  the  coast,  in  the  inter-Andean 
valleys,  and  in  the  Montaila, 
and  furnishes  the  Indian's  chief 
article  of  food  and  drink;  the  native  chicha,  once  the  favorite  beverage  of  the  Incas,  is 
made  from  this  product.     Maize  is  to  the  Peruvian  Indian  what  rice  is  to  the  Oriental, 


STREET   AND  OLD  CHURCH   OF    LAMBAYLQbL. 


jo8 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


the  foundation  of  his  cuisine.  The  history  of  its  discovery  is  interesting.  It  is  said  that, 
when  Christopher  Columbus  landed  on  the  Island  of  San  Salvador  in  the  Bahamas,  in  1492, 
he  and  his  followers  were  surprised  to  find  that  the  natives  prepared  a  most  palatable  food 
from  a  plant  that  was  quite  unknown  to  the  conquerors  and  had  never  been  seen  in  Europe. 
The  natives  called  it  mahi{,  which  the  Spaniards  corrupted  into  mai{  (pronounced  like  the 
English  word  "mice"),  and  it  has  ever  since  retained  this  name,  having  become  one  of 
the  principal  agricultural  products  of  the  world.  The  valley  of  Chancay  is  famous  for  its 
maize,  the  production  of  this  district  alone  amounting  to  about  ten  thousand  tons  annually; 
though  Cuzco  enjoys  the  reputation  of  growing  the  largest  maize  in  the  world,  with  grains 
the  size  of  a  large  bean.  Peruvian  maize  won  a  gold  medal  at  the  St.  Louis  Exposition  in 
1906,  and  was  the  subject  of  great  interest  among  agriculturists. 

Agriculture  is  awakening  greater  interest  than  ever  before  in  Peru.  The  government, 
through  the  Department  of  Fomento,  is  doing  everything  possible  to  encourage  its  develop- 
ment; the  National  School  of  Agriculture  and  veterinary  science  has  been  most  successful 
as  a  means  of  providing  practical  instruction  in  this  important  branch  of  education.  The 
school  was  founded  in  1902,  the  first  pupils  being  graduated  in  1906.  Many  young 
Peruvians  have  studied  agriculture  in  the  United  States  and  Europe,  and,  on  returning 
home,  have  put  in  practice  on  their  haciendas  the  knowledge  thus  gained.  A  few  have 
become  teachers  in  the  National  School  of  Agriculture,  which  is  accomplishing  a  great  work 


PATAPO,  DEPARTMENT  OF  LAMBAYEQUE. 


for  the  future  of  Peruvian  industries.     The  Department  of  Fomento  distributes,  free  of 
cost,  to  the  agricultural  community  a  great  quantity  and  variety  of  illustrative  literature 


AGRICULTURE  AND  IRRIGATION  ON   THE  COAST 


309 


respecting  modern  methods  of  cultivation,  irrigation,  and  fertilization  of  lands,  with  sug- 
gestions as  to  the  best  kinds  of  products  to  be  fostered  in  certain  regions;  a  bulletin  appears 


HUARAZ,   CAPITAL   OF    THE    DEPARTMENT   OF   ANCASH. 


monthly,  filled  with  useful  information,  and  the  school  of  agriculture  publishes  a  newspaper 
along  the  same  lines.  The  government  also  imports  seeds  and  special  plants  from  other 
countries  and  lends  its  aid  to  the  planter  in  exterminating  any  diseases  that  may  appear 
on  his  lands. 

The  laws  of  Peru  authorize  the  government  to  grant  concessions  of  waters  and  lands 
on  liberal  conditions,  which  are  attracting  agriculturists  from  less  favored  zones.  Companies 
have  been  formed  with  the  object  of  securing  irrigation  on  lands  hitherto  not  within  the 
cultivable  area,  and  the  system  of  irrigation  has  been  increased  in  various  sections.  In 
the  Department  of  Piura,  the  irrigating  canals  on  the  Chira  and  Piura  Rivers  have  greatly 
enhanced  the  value  of  lands  in  that  section;  and  similar  results  have  followed  the  work 
done  in  Lambayeque  and  in  the  Chicama  valley.  The  effort  on  the  part  of  the  government 
to  place  the  coast  lands  under  irrigation  is  not  of  recent  date,  the  records  showing  that 
measures  were  adopted  to  promote  enterprises  with  this  object  in  view  as  early  as  1861, 
when  authority  was  given,  by  a  supreme  decree,  "to  sink  artesian  wells  for  irrigation  and 
domestic  uses  in  Paita  and  Piura."     During  the  presidency  of  Don  Manuel  Pardo,  especial 


^lO 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


attention  was  given  to  the  problem  of  irrigation,  and  agriculture  was  developing  under  the 
most  auspicious  circumstances  when  interrupted  by  the  war  of  1879.  As  soon  as  peace 
was  restored  and  the  country  resumed  its  normal  tranquillity,  the  importance  of  irrigation 
again  occupied  the  public  mind,  and  from  that  time  to  the  present, — though  notably  during 
the  administration  of  Don  Jose  Pardo, — improvements  have  continued  to  be  made  and  new 
experiments  studied  for  the  benefit  of  the  agriculture  of  the  coast  by  a  more  thorough  and 
general  irrigation  of  its  territory.  Another  question  besides  irrigation  is  now  occupying 
the  attention  of  agriculturists.  Heretofore,  the  wonderful  fertility  of  the  soil  has  been 
perpetuated  by  allowing  fields  to  lie  fallow  for  a  season,  whenever  their  productiveness 
threatened  to  decline.  This  system  is  giving  place  to  the  more  scientific  method  of 
fertilizing  the  land  by  the  use  of  guano  and  other  substances  suitable  for  the  purpose,  and 
no  country  is  better  provided  than  Peru  with  the  best  fertilizing  products  of  the  world. 
The  islands  from  which  this  valuable  food  for  the  soil  is  obtained  are  all  within  easy 
sailing  distance  of  the  coast,  and  their  supply  is  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  country  for 
an  indefinite  period. 


PORT   OF    PACASMAYO. 


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CHAPTER  XXII 


TRUJILLO   AND   THE   CHICAMA    VALLEY 


A^ 


S  the  valley  of  the  Nile  became  the  seat 
of  Egyptian  civilization  when  all  the  rest 
of  Africa  was  in  barbarism,  so,  in  the  western 
world,  the  valleys  of  the  coast  region  of  Peru 
formed  the  centre  of  social  and  industrial 
development  at  a  period  more  remote  than  is 
indicated  by  existing  evidences  of  any  other 
culture  on  the  South  American  continent.  In 
the  primitive  history  of  mankind  it  is  under 
the  most  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate  that  the  greatest  social  development 
is  to  be  traced,  and  in  no  part  of  the  world 
had  the  simple  child  of  nature  apparently 
less  to  fear  from  the  elements  or  more  to 
hope  from  the  beneficent  earth  than  in  these 
smiling  valleys.  There  is  no  doubt  that  in 
ancient  times  the  irrigation  of  this  exten- 
sive area  was  more  general  and  its  desert 
tracts  were  fewer  than  at  present;  and  the 
efforts  of  the  Peruvian  government,  now 
directed  toward  a  scientific  investigation  of  the  subsoil  of  this  region,  aim  especially  to 
discover,  if  possible,  some  means  of  restoring  these  sources  of  moisture,  which  were  once 
sufficiently  abundant  for  the  fertilization  of  a  vast  realm  inhabited  by  a  population  many 
times  in  excess  of  what  it  is  at  present. 

Trujillo  occupies  the  site  on  which  flourished,  long  before  the  advent  of  the  Incas,  the 
rich  and  powerful  capital  of  the  Chimus.  Their  palaces  and  temples  were  spread  over  a 
great  extent  of  territory,  and  the  ruins  of  their  culture  are  to  be  seen  in  all  the  valleys  of  this 

3'J 


HUACO   DEL  SOL.  TRUJILLO. 


3'4 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


part  of  Peru.    Whether  the  earliest  builders  of  these  prehistoric  piles  were  the  Chimus  or 
a  still  more  ancient  race  has  not  been  determined ;  but  in  the  neighborhood  of  Trujillo  and 

in  the  valleys  of  Chic- 
ama,  Santa  Catalina,  and 
others,  exist  to  this  day 
evidences  of  an  archi- 
tecture of  very  great 
antiquity,  and  of  such  a 
character  as  could  only 
have  been  produced  by 
an  intelligent  and  culti- 
vated people.  At  the 
time  of  the  Spanish 
conquest,  the  Incas  had 
gained  the  ascendancy 
in  the  valley  of  Chimu, 
extending  some  two 
hundred  leagues  along 
the  coast  from  Tumbes 
southward,  but  its  tribes 
were  by  no  means  will- 
ing allies  of  the  sover- 
eign of  Cuzco.  When 
the  Spaniards  appeared, 
they  were  welcomed  as 
superior  beings  sent  by 
heaven  to  avenge  the 
injuries  which  the  sub- 
jects of  the  powerful  Chimu  Canchu — The  Grand  Chimu — had  suffered  at  the  hands  of 
Pachacutec's  son,  the  Prince  Yupanqui. 

According  to  colonial  records;  a  small  Spanish  settlement  already  existed  on  the  site  of 
the  present  city  of  Trujillo  when  Pizarro  arrived  from  Lima  in  153^.  Don  Miguel  de  Estete, 
commissioned  by  Almagro  the  year  previous  to  find  a  suitable  location  for  a  town,  had 
chosen  this  place  and  settled  a  colony  there.  Pizarro  approved  and  confirmed  the  settle- 
ment already  established,  and  formally  founded  the  city  of  Trujillo,  giving  it  the  name  of 
his  native  town  in  Spain.  The  Intendencia  of  Trujillo  was  defined  at  the  same  time  to 
cover,  not  only  the  present  Department  of  La  Libertad,  but  those  of  Lambayeque,  Piura, 
Cajamarca,  and  Amazonas.  In  1^37,  the  title  of  city  was  conferred  on  Trujillo  under  the 
royal  seal  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  and  his  mother,  the  Queen  Joana,  and  from  the  earliest 
days  of  its  history  the  municipality  has  been  honored  with  the  dignity  of  "Very  Illustrious 


•GALLERY  OF  THE   PALACE  OF  JUSTICE,  TRUJILLO. 


TRUJILLO  AND    THE  CHIC/tMA   yALLEY 


J'5 


Corporation  of  the  City  of  Trujillo."  Throughout  the  period  of  the  viceroyalty,  it  was 
one  of  the  most  important  centres  of  colonial  industry;  many  noble  families  had  their 
estates  in  its  fertile  valleys,  and  their  descendants  still  retain  possession.  The  people  of 
Trujillo  are  very  proud  of  their  ancestry,  and  conserve  the  courtly  manner  and  inherent 
grace  distinctive  of  old  Castile.  Peruvians  enjoy  repeating,  at  the  expense  of  this  hidalgo 
spirit,  the  humorous  saying  that  "  the  bones  of  Don  Quixote  lie  interred  in  the  Plaza  of 
Trujillo."  There  is  an  atmosphere  of  refinement  in  the  social  life  of  the  place  that  is  as 
charming  as  it  is  simple  and  genuine.  Pride  of  race  has  proved  no  disadvantage  to  Trujillo, 
whose  people  have  other  claims  than  heredity  on  which  to  rest  their  merits. 

Trujillo  was  the  first  city  of  Peru  that  proclaimed  and  took  the  oath  of  Independence, 
on  the  22d  of  December,  1820,  the  Cabildo  being  convened  under  the  presidency  of  the 
Intendente,  the  Marquis  of  Torre-Tagle.  General  Bolivar,  in  his  message  to  Congress  in 
182^,  said  that  the  provinces  comprising  the  Intendencia  of  Trujillo  had  given  liberty  to 
Peru ;  and  in  recognition  of  this  patriotic  movement,  he  bestowed  the  name  of  La  Libertad 


CALLE   DEL   COMERCIO.  TRUJILLO. 


on  the  Department,  which,  under  the  republic,  replaced  the  Intendencia  of  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment.    Later,  the  limits  of  La  Libertad  were  encroached  upon  to  form  the  Departments 


3i6 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


of  Amazonas,  Cajamarca,  Piura,  and  Lambayeque,  each  of  these  divisions  being  entitled  to 
share  the  honor  of  having  led  the  way  to  national  liberty.     In  1824,  Trujillo  was  declared 

the  capital  of  the  republic,  during  the  time 
that  Lima  was  occupied  by  the  royalists. 
Its  history  as  a  republican  city  reflects 
honor  on  the  people,  who  have  shown 
their  patriotism  and  courage  upon  every 
occasion  when  the  needs  of  the  country 
have  called  them  to  action,  in  the  war 
with  Chile,  the  Trujillo  regiment  was  dis- 
tinguished among  all  the  troops  of  Peru 
for  bravery  on  the  field;  from  this  city 
most  liberal  contributions  have  been  made 
for  purposes  of  national  defence ;  and  the 
public  spirit  of  the  citizens  is  constantly 
shown  by  their  generous  encouragement 
of  enterprises  for  the  public  benefit,  such  as 
the  installation  of  the  water  works  system, 
the  paving  of  sidewalks,  and  the  main- 
tenance of  public  parks  and  buildings,  all 
of  which  have  been  effected  through  the 
cooperation  of  progressive  townspeople. 
During  the  viceroyalty,  Trujillo  was 
a  walled  city,  of  oval  form,  and  about  two 
leagues  in  circumference;  the  attacks  of 
pirates  led  the  Duke  de  la  Palata,  when 
viceroy  of  Peru,  to  provide  this  means  of  defence  against  invasion,  the  wall  being  built  in 
16 1 7,  of  adobe,  five  feet  thick  and  ten  feet  high,  with  a  parapet  above  it  and  fifteen  bastions. 
Only  a  few  traces  of  this  structure  still  remain,  the  increased  population  and  industrial 
development  having  extended  the  city's  boundaries  greatly  beyond  its  former  limits. 
The  present  population  is  about  twenty  thousand.  The  streets  follow  the  usual  plan  of 
Spanish-built  cities,  cutting  each  other  at  right  angles  and  having  an  average  width  of  from 
forty  to  fifty  feet.  The  houses  are  of  the  Spanish  colonial  style,  in  appearance  resembling 
those  of  Lima  more  than  any  other  Peruvian  city.  Everywhere  one  sees  the  little  balconies 
encased  in  ornamental  rejas  or  barred  frames;  spacious  patios,  paved  with  ornamental  tiles 
and  adorned  with  plants  and  flowers, — presenting  a  most  attractive  appearance  as  seen 
from  the  street, — and  solid  walls  and  massive  doors,  telling  of  a  period  when  durability  was 
deemed  as  important  as  architectural  beauty.  The  houses  built  nowadays  are  mere  shells 
in  comparison  with  the  edifices  constructed  by  the  Spanish  conquerors  and  their  successors, 
when  a  wall  had  to  be  made  several  feet  thick  to  be  satisfactory,  and  a  door  must  be  large 


lttfll^^-!c>^^''                                             ^   '^R^HH 

HIk^              '"^^I 

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^ffiE^^-    "^^Hl^h 

^^^^  '      ■^^s 

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fejs, 

PICTURESQUb   ROAD  THROUGH  A  SUGAR    ESTATE. 


TRUJILLO  /IND   THE  CHICAMA  yALLEY 


in 


enough  to  admit  a  mounted  horseman,  and  massive  enough  to  resist  a  battering-ram. 
From  the  principal  public  square,  called  here,  as  elsewhere  in  Spanish-America,  the  Plaza 
de  Armas,  the  most  important  public  buildings  may  be  seen,  the  Prefecture,  municipal 
buildings  and  other  government  offices  overlooking  this  central  paseo.  The  plaza  covers 
five  acres  and  is  ornamented  with  a  garden  of  shrubs  and  flowers,  in  the  midst  of  which 
stands  a  large  stone  fountain.  Beautiful  shade  trees  border  the  great  square,  making  it  an 
ideal  place  for  a  promenade,  and  here  the  social  world  congregates  in  the  evening.  In  the 
vicinity  of  the  plaza  are  several  interesting  old  churches  of  the  colonial  period.  When 
Pizarro  founded  the  city,  the  chronicler  of  that  event  tells  us,  "  the  convents  of  Santo 
Domingo,  San  Francisco,  and  La  Merced  were  the  corner  stones  of  that  enterprise."  The 
convent  of  San  Agustin,  situated  a  block  away  from  the  plaza,  was  founded  in  1558,  and 
the  first  Jesuit  college  in  1627.    The  episcopal  diocese  of  Trujillo  was  created  in  1^77. 

The  church  of  San  Agustin  is  particularly  notable  for  the  magnificent  carving  of  its  main 
altar  and  pulpit,  and  the  rich  gilding  that  adorns  them.  The  Jesuit  college  building  has  been 
occupied  by  the  University  of  Trujillo  since  the  inauguration  of  the  republic,  in  accordance 
with  a  decree  of  President  Bolivar,  dated  the  loth  of  May,  1824.  The  convent  of  Belem, 
founded  in  1671,  is  now  used  as  a  hospital.    The  schools  and  benevolent  institutions  of 


A  CORRAL  ON  A  SUGAR   ESTATE,  CHICAMA  VALLEY. 


Trujillo  receive  especial  attention,  and  the  best  interests  of  both  are  made  a  subject  of  public 
and  private  consideration.     Besides  the  University  and  the  National  College  of  San  Juan, 


3,8  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

maintained  by  the  government,  the  Institute  Moderno,  the  Colegio  de  La  Independencia 
and  other  schools  afford  secondary  instruction,  and  primary  training  is  given  in  ten  or  more 
municipal  colleges. 

The  night  schools  of  Trujillo  are  worthy  of  emulation  in  every  city  of  Peru.  Not  only 
is  manual  training  given,  but  lessons  in  bookkeeping,  etc.,  are  taught,  and  classes  are 
instructed  in  the  English  language,  which  is  regarded  as  of  especial  importance  because  of 
its  usefulness  in  a  commercial  career.  The  Railway  Society  of  Mutual  Protection,  the 
Employes'  Union  of  the  Department  of  La  Libertad  and  similar  societies  are  doing  a  great 
work  for  the  improvement  of  conditions  among  the  clerks  and  other  working  people  of  the 
capital.  Not  only  are  classes  formed  for  the  benefit  of  men  who  wish  to  pursue  a  special 
study,  but  free  instruction  is  given  to  boys  who  would  otherwise  be  spending  their 
evenings  in  idle  company  on  the  streets.  It  is  interesting  to  visit  these  schools  and  see 
them  filled  night  after  night  with  eager  and  ambitious  pupils.  The  teachers  give  their 
services  free  during  certain  evenings  each  week. 

Trujillo  has  a  theatre,  a  hippodrome,  and  social  clubs,  the  Club  de  La  Libertad  being  an 
important  organization  which  directs  the  amusements  and  festivals  held  every  season  in  the 
Park  of  La  Libertad,  ^he  most  beautiful  paseo  of  Trujillo,  and  one  of  the  finest  parks  in  Peru. 
The  Central  Club,  the  leading  social  organization  of  the  city,  counts  among  its  members 
many  prominent  men  of  the  department.  The  press  is  represented  by  three  daily  news- 
papers— of  which  La  Indiistria  is  the  largest — and  a  number  of  monthly  periodicals.  The 
Torch  and  The  Shoemaker,  both  labor  journals,  are  an  expression  of  the  interest  taken  by 
the  workingmen  in  the  affairs  of  the  day.  A  novel  enterprise  is  the  publication  of  an  illus- 
trated almanac  of  three  hundred  pages,  called  El  Mercurio,  devoted  to  a  description  of  the 
Department  of  La  Libertad,  its  history,  government,  schools,  and  industrial  development, 
and  issued  at  the  publisher's  cost,  in  the  interests  of  his  commercial  house  and  as  a 
propaganda  of  the  department. 

Two  widely  different  attractions  claim  the  attention  of  all  visitors  to  Trujillo, — the 
wonderful  archaeological  ruins  and  the  famous  Chicama  Valley.  Between  the  city  and 
the  sea  extend  the  crumbling  walls  of  Chan-Chan  and  the  Huacas  of  Moche,  while 
northward,  after  a  railway  journey  of  less  than  an  hour,  the  traveller  enters  the  blooming 
gardens  and  green-mantled  fields  of  a  country  overflowing  with  the  bounties  of  a  perennial 
harvest.  Chan-Chan  covers  a  desert  tract  about  fifty  square  miles  in  circumference  less 
than  a  league  north  of  the  capital,  and  just  beyond  the  little  Indian  village  of  Mansiche,  on 
the  road  to  the  seaport  Huanchaco.  It  is  said  that  rich  treasure  lies  buried  somewhere 
under  the  modest  little  cluster  of  huts  named  Mansiche  in  honor  of  a  great  cacique  of  the 
place.  But  one  hears  constantly  of  buried  treasure  in  Trujillo.  The  peje  chica  and  the  peje 
grande — the  "  little  fish  "  and  the  "  big  fish  " — are  magic  words  to  those  who  understand. 
Every  traveller  who  possesses  an  imagination  susceptible  to  the  influence  of  mystery  and 
tradition  must  succumb  to  the  glittering  charm  of  the  peje  chica,  and  feel  the  gold-hunter's 
enthusiasm  when  brought  into  the  realm  of  the  peje  grande.    As  the  horses  jog  along  the 


TRUJILLO  AND   THE  CHICAMA  yALLEY 


3'9 


road  that  leads  from  the  city  to  the  ruins,  visions  of  hidden  treasure  throw  a  glamour 
over  the  most  commonplace  scenes,  and  every  mound  by  the  roadside  is  an  object  of 
curiosity  as  a  possible  repository  for  treasure.  It  is  a  matter  of  history  that  soon  after 
the  Conquest  a  vast  fortune  was  unearthed  at  Chan-Chan,  of  which  the  king's  fifth 
amounted  to  a  million  dollars  in  value,  this  treasure  being  known  as  the  pcje  chka. 
One  version  of  the  story  tells  that  the  cacique  of  Mansiche,  who  had  observed  with 
particular  attention  the  kindness  of  a  young  Spaniard  toward  the  people  of  the  conquered 
race,  and  had  noticed  also  that  he  was  very  poor,  revealed  the  secret  of  the  hiding-place 
of  the  peje  chicci,  on  condition  that  a  portion  of  the  wealth  should  be  used  to  advance  the 
interests  of  the  Indians.    The  most  valuable  article  discovered  was  in  the  form  of  a  fish, 


A  LOAD  OF  CANE  READY  FOR  THE  FACTORY. 


of  solid  gold,  and  so  large  that  the  Spaniards  considered  it  a  rare  prize;  but  the  cacique 
assured  his  young  friend  that  it  was  only  the  "little  fish"  and  that  a  much  greater 
treasure  existed  in  the  "big  fish,"  worth  many  times  the  value  of  this  one.  The  sequel 
to  the  story  is  that  the  Spaniard  forgot  his  promise,  went  off  to  Spain  and  spent  all  his 
gold,  and  was  returning  to  get  the  peje  grande,  of  which  he  made  great  boasts,  when 
he  was  thrown  from  his  horse  and  killed.  From  that  day  to  the  present,  treasure 
hunters  have  dug  into  the  huacas  of  Chan-Chan  and  Moche  with  faith  and  persistence, 
— but  without  finding  the  peje  grande.  Many  interesting  relics  of  the  ancient  civilization 
have  been  unearthed,  and  the  present  prefect  of  Trujillo,  Dr.  Carlos  Velarde,  has  accom- 
plished a  notable  work  in  the  excavation  of  the  great  wall  of  Chan-Chan,  covered  with 


320 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


carvings  of  fishes,  turtles,  pelicans,  and  other  animals  of  the  seashore.     Dr.  Max  Uhle  is 
now  engaged  in  making  excavations  at  Chan-Chan  and  at  Moche,  the  latter  offering  a 

study  of  much  archaeological  importance  in 
its  "  Huaco  del  Sol." 

Moche  is  an  Indian  town  situated  mid- 
way between  Trujillo  and  the  port  of  Sala- 
verry,  to  the  south,  its  inhabitants  preserve 
their  primitive  costumes,  and  wear  a  dis- 
tinctive dress,  the  women's  garb  consisting 
of  a  chemise  and  a  single  piece  of  dark  blue 
cloth  wrapped  round  the  body  and  fastened 
at  the  waist,  reaching  to  the  ankles.  The 
municipal  ordinance  forbids  the  wearing  of 
this  costume  in  the  city,  but  at  Moche  it  is 
everywhere  seen.  The  Moche  Indians  never 
intermarry  with  other  races,  and  they  are  as 
proud  of  their  unmixed  pedigree  as  any 
"belted  earl."  They  are  an  intelligent  peo- 
ple, and  the  women  are  graceful  and  ready- 
witted.  Recently,  two  North  American 
ladies  were  being  shown  the  sights  of  Tru- 
jillo, when  their  cicerone  drew  attention  to  a 
Moche  girl  riding  by  on  a  donkey,  evidently 
on  her  way  to  Moche.  Seeing  that  she  was 
an  object  of  interest,  she  smiled  and  bowed  with  the  nonchalance  of  a  court  belle,  and 
asked  the  ladies'  escort,  "Gringas?"  As  the  amusement  of  the  strangers  told  that  they 
understood  this  patronymic  to  apply  to  themselves,  she  hastened  to  add,  hospitably,  "  Bring 
them  to  Moche  I " 

It  is  impossible  to  imagine  a  more  complete  transition  than  is  made  when  one  leaves 
the  enchanted  realm  of  the  peje  grande  for  the  varying  sights  and  scenes  of  the  Chicama 
valley.  It  is  necessary  to  visit  the  former  in  order  to  appreciate  the  full  significance  of  the 
latter.  Everything  around  Chan-Chan  is  a  temptation  to  live  on  dreams,  to  try  one's  luck 
at  treasure  hunting,  or  to  dig  huacas  in  the  hope  of  getting  a  rare  specimen  for  some 
archgeological  museum.  The  Chicama  valley  affords  proof  that  there  are  richer  treasures  in 
its  fertile  fields  than  Chan-Chan  ever  had  in  hiding,  and  no  uncertainty  exists  as  to  their 
location.  Its  area  is  about  a  hundred  square  leagues,  drained  by  the  Chicama  River,  which 
rises  in  the  province  of  Otuzco,  Department  of  La  Libertad,  and  flows  into  the  Pacific.  On 
its  great  plantations,  sugar-cane  is  grown  that  reaches  a  height  of  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  feet,  containing  more  than  fourteen  per  cent  of  sugar.  The  broad  estates  of  Casa 
Grande,  Roma,  Cartavio,  and  others,  are  crossed  by  private  railways  which  carry  the  cane 


MAIN  ENTRANCE  TO  A  SUGAR  HACIENDA  NEAR  TRUJILLO. 


TRUJILLO  AND   THE  CH/CAMA  (/ALLEY 


321 


THE  CHAPEL  OF  A  HACIENDA  AT  GALINDO. 


from  the  fields  to  the  mills;  and  the  entire  valley  has  direct  communication  with  the  port 
of  Salaverry  by  means  of  the  state  railway,  now  under  the  administration  of  the  Peruvian 
Corporation.  From  the  port,  the 
main  line  passes  through  Moche, 
Trujillo  (eight  miles  from  Sala- 
verry), and  crossing  the  desert 
pampd  with  one  stop  only  at  the 
station  of  La  Cumbre,  enters  the 
valley  at  the  town  of  Chicama, 
twenty  miles  north  of  the  capital. 
About  a  mile  above  tiiis  point, 
after  passing  Chiclin,  the  train 
crosses  an  immense  iron  bridge, 
about  three  thousand  feet  long, 
over  the  Chicama  River.  The 
route  then  lies  entirely  through 
the  district  of  the  sugar  lands, 
the  principal  stations  being  Cho- 
cope,  Constancia  Junction,  Casa 

Grande  Junction,  Facala,  and  the  terminal  station  of  Ascope,  fifty  miles  from  Salaverry. 
From  all  these  stations,  private  railways  connect  with  the  sugar  plantations.  The  Hacienda 
of  Roma  is  connected  directly  with  the  port  of  Huanchaco  by  a  private  line,  making  an 
extension  of  thirty-five  miles.  This  immense  property,  like  the  estates  of  Casa  Grande  and 
Cartavio,  embraces  many  thousands  of  acres  and  supports  large  communities  of  working 
people.  Life  presents  a  very  pleasant  picture  on  these  large  plantations,  where  a  good 
climate,  healthful  labor,  comfortable  homes  and  ample  provision  for  their  needs  contribute 
to  make  the  employes  contented  and  happy.  Churches,  schools,  and  hospitals  are  provided, 
and  on  some  plantations  there  are  free  libraries,  and  night  classes  are  taught  for  the  benefit 
of  those  who  work  during  the  day.  Telephones  connect  the  haciendas  with  Trujillo,  and, 
as  most  of  them  are  situated  within  a  couple  of  hours'  ride  by  railway  from  that  city, 
constant  communication  is  maintained.  The  Casa  Grande  Company  owns  one  of  the  most 
important  sugar  estates  of  the  Chicama  valley,  covering  nearly  two  hundred  thousand  acres 
of  land,  and  supports  a  population  of  about  five  thousand,  most  of  the  number  living  in  the 
vicinity  of  Casa  Grande.  The  machinery  used  in  the  sugar  factory  of  this  hacienda  is  of 
the  most  modern  manufacture,  equal  to  the  best  in  existence  for  the  purpose.  Electricity  is 
used  for  lighting,  the  hacienda  having  a  dynamo  for  two  hundred  lights  of  sixteen  candle- 
power  and  a  motor  of  twenty-five  horse-power.  The  new  system  of  crushing  and 
elaborating  the  cane  in  the  factory  of  Casa  Grande  is  so  complete  that  the  process  follows 
automatically  from  the  unloading  of  the  cars  as  they  arrive  from  the  fields,  to  the  filling  of 
the  sacks  with  sugar,  ready  for  market.    Not  only  in  the  factory,  but  in  the  fields,  modem 


322 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


machinery  is  used,  and  agricultural  implements  of  tlie  best  manufacture  are  employed. 
This  is  true  of  Roma  and  Cartavio  as  well  as  Casa  Grande.  The  resident  managers  of 
these  haciendas  enjoy  every  comfort  that  a  well-ordered  establishment  can  provide,  and 
they  entertain  with  generous  hospitality. 

Although  the  fame  of  the  Chicama  valley  outshines  that  of  other  sugar-growing 
districts  of  Trujillo,  there  are  large  and  rich  plantations  also  in  the  valleys  of  Jequetepeque, 
or  Pacasmayo,  to  the  north,  and  in  Santa  Catalina  and  Moche  to  the  south.  A  railway 
connects  the  seaport  of  Pacasmayo  with  the  sugar  lands  and  rice  fields  of  the  interior, 
extending  fifty  miles  to  Guadalupe  and  Yonan,  on  the  road  to  Cajamarca.  The  province  of 
Pacasmayo,  which  adjoins  that  of  Trujillo,  has  about  five  thousand  acres  under  cultivation 
in  sugar-cane,  and  its  rice  harvest  yields  one  hundred  thousand  sacks  annually.  The 
valleys  of  Santa  Catalina  and  Moche  are  connected  with  Trujillo  by  a  branch  of  the  main 
railway  from  Salaverry,  which  extends  from  Trujillo  to  Laredo,  Galindo,  and  Menocucho, 
passing  through  plantations  of  sugar,  rice,  and  other  products.  The  annual  exports  of 
sugar  from  the  port  of  Salaverry  amount  to  about  fifty  thousand  tons  and  those  from 
Huanchaco  average  between  twenty-five  thousand  and  thirty  thousand  tons.  An  important 
share  of  these  shipments  goes  to  North  American  ports. 


PARK  OF   LA  LIBERTAD,  TRUJILLO. 


The  Department  of  La  Libertad  is  composed  of  six  provinces,  those  of  Trujillo  and 
Pacasmayo  bordering  the  Pacific  Ocean,  while  the  remaining  four — Otuzco,  Santiago  de 
Chuco,  Huamachuco,  and  Pataz — are  situated  in  the  region  of  the  sierra.    The  Maranon  River 


TRUJILLO  AND   THE  CHICAMA   I/ALLEY 


J2J 


divides  the  province  of  Huamachuco  from  that  of  Pataz,  and  in  its  lower  valleys  the  climate 
of  the  IVlontafia  prevails,  coffee,  sugar,  and  cacao  being  produced.     Coca  is  one  of  the 
important  products  of  this  department,  and  cocaine  is  manufactured  in  Trujillo  for  shipment 
to  foreign  ports.    On  the  higii 
puna,  abundant  pasture  is  found, 
and,  in  the  lower  sierra,  wheat, 
barley,  maize,  and  potatoes  are 
cultivated.     The  southern  dis- 
tricts of  the  province  of  Trujillo 
contain  saline  deposits  of  im- 
portance. 

Not  only  is  the  Department 
of  La  Libertad  rich  in  agricul- 
tural products  of  every  zone,  but 
the  mines  of  its  sierras  abound 
in  precious  metals.  For  the  past 
few  years,  especial  interest  has 
been  taken  in  the  mineral  wealth  administration  house  of  a  sugar  estate  in  the  chicama  valley. 

of  this  region,  small  lots  of  gold, 

silver,  and  copper  ores  being  exported  with  most  satisfactory  returns.  Quiruvilca,  sixty-six 
miles  beyond  the  terminus  of  the  railway  which  connects  Trujillo  with  Menocucho,  is  a 
mining  district  covering  about  a  hundred  square  miles  rich  in  copper  and  silver.  Veins 
having  an  average  width  of  fourteen  inches  contain  from  fifty  to  sixty  per  cent  copper,  and 
silver  veins  of  sixteen  inches  in  width  produce  as  much  as  a  thousand  ounces  of  silver. 
The  Quiruvilca  mine  is  two  days'  ride  on  muleback  from  the  end  of  the  railway,  which 
is  twenty-seven  miles  from  the  port  of  Salaverry,  where  all  the  steamers  of  the  west  coast 
call  for  cargo.  Although  the  property  has  not  been  developed  on  the  large  scale  necessary 
to  make  it  a  famous  copper  mine,  it  is  worked  successfully  and  yields  good  returns  for  the 
small  capital  employed.  Two  hundred  tons  can  now  be  exported  daily,  the  high  and  low 
grade  ores  together  averaging  forty-five  per  cent  copper.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  present 
owners,  who  are  also  the  chief  proprietors  of  Casa  Grande,  to  place  this  enterprise  on  a 
gigantic  basis,  by  constructing  a  railway,  not  only  to  Quiruvilca,  but  to  another  mine, 
Araqueda,  also  enormously  rich  in  copper  and  silver,  and  by  establishing  smelting  works 
and  other  improvements  for  which  large  capital  must  be  employed.  The  easy  accessibility 
to  a  good  port  and  the  mildness  of  the  climate  of  this  mining  region,  as  compared  with  the 
severity  of  the  puna  where  many  of  the  most  valuable  mines  of  Peru  are  located,  are  strong 
points  in  favor  of  its  rapid  development. 

The  subjects  of  the  Incas  worked  the  mines  of  the  sierra  throughout  this  region  and 
had  thriving  villages  in  the  various  mountain  districts  of  the  present  Department  of 
La  Libertad.     The  town  of  Huamachuco,  now  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 


?24 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


name,  was  a  populous  Indian  settlement  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  when  Hernando 
Pizarro  discovered  it  while  leading  his  army  southward  from  Piura  in  search  of  the  treasure 
which  Atahuallpa  had  said  would  be  found  in  the  temple  of  Pachacamac.  The  Conquerors 
were  too  intent  on  collecting  the  gold  and  silver  of  the  Inca's  palaces  and  temples  to  occupy 
themselves  at  that  time  with  the  question  of  mining  and  of  the  wealth  to  be  gained  by  such 
a  laborious  process;  they  saw  the  coveted  metal  within  their  reach  without  having  to  dig 
for  it,  and  they  little  guessed  the  hidden  treasures  over  which  they  marched  on  their  way 
to  plunder  the  sacred  halls  of  Pachacamac.  Perhaps  the  source  of  the  rich  gold  and  silver 
ornaments  of  the  Chimus  is  to  be  found  in  the  sierras  of  Otuzco,  Santiago  de  Chuco,  Pataz, 
and  Huamachuco,  the  fountain-head  of  that  precious  stream  down  which  the  peje  grande 
floated  to  lose  itself  among  the  huacas  of  Chan-Chan  and  Moche. 


A  SUGAR   FACTORY  OF   THE   CHICAMA  VALLEY. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


THE   COTTON   FIELDS   OF   PIURA 


\  A  7" HEN  Pizarro  chose  the  valley  of  Piura 
as  the  site  on  which  to  found  the 
first  Spanish  city  in  Peru,  he  was  especially 
attracted  by  its  fertility  and  the  abundance  of 
water  that  supplied  its  flourishing  farms  and 
gardens.  Agriculture  was  highly  developed 
by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  this  region,  and 
cotton,  which  is  the  staple  product  of  Piura 
to-day,  was  grown  in  the  coast  valleys  cen- 
turies before  the  Spaniards  visited  these 
shores.  Cotton  materials  have  been  found 
in  the  tombs  of  the  people  who  ruled  through- 
out this  part  of  Peru  before  the  incas  gained 
ascendancy,  and  the  use  of  the  product  seems 
to  have  been  known  here  from  time  imme- 
morial. No  doubt  Pizarro  and  his  followers 
passed  through  fields  of  cotton  on  their  way 
from  Tumbes  to  Piura,  as  the  Conqueror 
gave  an  enthusiastic  report  of  the  prosperous 
farming  communities  seen  during  his  march. 
The  founding  of  Piura  preceded  that  of 
Lima  by  three  years,  and  in  recognition  of  its 
having  been  the  first  Spanish  city  in  Peru,  the 
sovereigns  conferred  on  it  the  distinction  of  a  coat-of-arms  before  that  honor  was  bestowed 
on  Quito.  During  the  colonial  period,  Piura  grew  to  be  a  centre  of  industrial  activity,  and 
under  the  republic  it  lias  become  the  flourishing  capital  of  one  of  the  richest  departments  of 
the  caast.    The  city  has  several  churches,  good  schools,  and  charitable  institutions.     Its 

327 


1 

^^K 

1 

^@ 

1 

aJUIHSp 

^^p^ 

i 

■'»' 

A  COTTON    PLANT   ON  A  PIURA   PLANTATION. 


328 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


citizens  are  progressive  and  are  interested  in  the  advancement  of  education  and  the  improve- 
ment of  material  conditions.    The  Department  of  Piura,  which  shares  with  that  of  La  Libertad 

the  honors  due 
to  a  patriotic  and 
courageous  peo- 
ple, was  made  an 
independent  Lit- 
toral Province  in 
1837,  and  a  de- 
partment in  1 86 1. 
Through  the  vary- 
ing experiences  of 
the  republic,  this 
department  has 
borne  an  honor- 
able share  of  the 
burdens  and  the 
triumphs,  and 
some  of  the  most 
distinguished  men 
of  Peru  have 
learned  their  ear- 
liest lessons  in 
patriotism  under 
the  training  of  its 
worthy  matrons. 
The  immortal 
hero.  Admiral 
Grau,  was  born 
in  Piura;  and  after 
this  revered  name 
follow  those  of 
statesmen  and 
men  of  letters  who 
rank  with  the  best 
in  their  country. 
The  Department  of  Piura  lies  in  the  extreme  north  of  the  coast  region,  separated  from 
the  gulf  of  Guayaquil  by  the  Littoral  Province  of  Tumbes.  It  is  divided  into  the  coast 
provinces  of  Paita  and  Piura  and  the  interior  provinces  of  Ayabaca  and  Huancabamba. 
Paita  is  drained  by  the  Chira  River,  which  rises  in  the  Cordilleras  and  crosses  the  southern 


A  BUSY   THOROUGHFARE   OF   CATACAOS. 


THE  COTTON  FIELDS  OF  PIURA  329 

districts  of  the  province,  fertilizing  some  of  the  most  extensive  plantations  of  northern  Peru. 
The  Piura  River  traverses  the  province  of  the  same  name,  and  in  its  winding  course, — first 
northwestward,  and  then  south  and  southwest, — it  supplies  irrigation  to  all  the  west  and 
north  of  Piura  province.  The  river  is  crossed  by  several  bridges,  the  most  important  being 
that  of  the  capital,  a  handsome  iron  structure.  In  the  region  fertilized  by  these  two  rivers 
are  grown  some  of  the  finest  qualities  of  cotton  to  be  found  on  the  globe,  the  "  Peruvian  " 
ranking  next  to  the  famous  "Sea  Island"  in  the  European  market  The  territory  under 
irrigation  extends  westward  from  the  seaport  of  Paita  along  the  northern  bank  of  the  Chira 
River  to  the  foot  of  the  Cordilleras,  and  from  the  port  of  Sechura  to  Piura,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Piura  River, — though  the  Piura  valley  is  irrigated  at  intervals  throughout  its  whole  length. 
According  to  scientific  authorities  who  have  reported  officially  on  the  possibility  of  increasing 
the  extent  of  cultivable  territory  on  the  coast,  this  fertile  zone  does  not  represent  half  the 
area  of  irrigable  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  these  rivers ;  nor  does  it  yield  all  the  harvest  that 
might  be  gathered  if  it  were  entirely  under  tillage. 

The  scarcity  of  laborers  and  the  need  of  more  capital  in  Piura,  as  elsewhere  in  Peru, 
has  caused  much  land  to  remain  idle  which  is  capable  of  producing  great  wealth.  But,  as 
a  noted  authority  on  this  industry,  Sefior  Victor  Marie,  says  in  his  book.  Cotton  Production 
in  Peru,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  laborers  of  the  sierra  should  not  be  induced  to  come 
to  the  coast,  and,  by  kind  treatment  and  judicious  training,  be  employed  to  serve  the 
interests  of  its  agriculture  better  than  imported  labor.  Sefior  Marie  adds:  "How  much 
the  country  would  gain  by  the  instruction  and  education  of  these  strong  sons  of  the  sierra, 
a  robust,  docile  and  laborious  race,  who  need  only  to  be  well  organized,  and  guarded 
against  the  evils  of  alcoholism  1"  It  is  suggested  that,  if  given  homes,  with  a  little  piece  of 
land  to  cultivate  as  their  own,  and  gently  treated,  many  families  would  gladly  abandon 
their  mountain  farms  for  the  milder  climate  and  more  certain  abundance  of  the  coast.  At 
present,  the  laborers  from  the  sierra  who  are  employed  on  the  haciendas  of  the  coast,  work 
during  only  a  part  of  the  year,  going  back  to  the  mountains  as  soon  as  the  harvest  is 
gathered.  They  cannot  be  counted  on  to  return  every  season,  nor  is  it  at  all  certain  how 
long  they  will  remain.  But,  in  opposition  to  Sefior  Marie's  suggestion,  it  might  be  urged : 
"  Why  take  the  mountaineer  from  his  native  soil,  which  is  capable  of  cultivation  far  beyond 
what  it  yields  at  present  and  is  the  favored  zone  for  such  products  as  potatoes,  maize, 
wheat,  barley,  and  other  cereals  ?  "  The  adoption  of  means  toward  better  organization  and 
the  reduction  of  alcoholism  in  the  sierra,  such  as  is  recommended  for  the  coast,  might 
result  in  the  improvement  of  agricultural  development  in  these  mountain  districts,  a  con- 
sequence equally  important  to  the  country. 

The  richest  cotton-growing  region  of  Peru  lies  in  the  vicinity  of  Sechura  and  Catacaos 
on  the  Piura  River,  and  in  the  lower  valley  of  the  Chira,  where  the  lands  have  been  formed 
by  alluvial  deposits  and  were  formerly  covered  with  forests  of  mesquite,  called  algarrobjs. 
Here  the  Peruvian  cotton  attains  its  finest  development  and  is  so  easily  produced  that  good 
lands  require  to  be  irrigated  only  once  a  season  to  ensure  a  bountiful  harvest.    Sowing  is  a 


3^o  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

simple  process  which  consists  in  dropping  the  seed  into  holes  ten  or  fifteen  feet  apart.     It 
is  not  necessary  to  plough  the  ground,  and  irrigation  ditches  carry  from  the  Chira  and 


ALGARROBA    TREES   ON  A   PIURA    PLANTATION. 


Piura  Rivers  all  the  water  required  for  fertilization.  In  the  spaces  between  the  cotton 
plants  are  grown  melons,  pumpkins,  and  the  indispensable  maize.  The  first  harvest  appears 
eight  months  after  the  seed  is  sown,  though  it  is  usually  small,  seldom  amounting  to  more 
than  four  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre.  The  production  increases  each  year  following,  up 
to  the  fifth  or  sixth  year,  when  the  crop  reaches  an  average  of  more  than  half  a  ton  to  the 
acre.  On  the  plantations  of  Mancora  and  in  the  beautiful  chacaras  of  Monte  Viejo,  Los  Dos 
Altos,  Cumbivira,  Chato,  Casa  Grande,  Monte  Negro,  and  others,  the  Peruvian  cotton  grows 
to  perfection.  In  the  valley  of  the  Chira,  where  there  is  the  greatest  abundance  of  water 
and  the  only  problem  presented  to  the  cotton-grower  is  how  to  make  the  best  use  of  it  for 
irrigation,  the  future  of  this  industry  offers  brilliant  prospects.  Within  the  past  few  years  its 
cultivable  lands  have  been  greatly  increased,  especially  in  the  campifias  of  Sullana  and 
Querecotillo,  and  on  the  San  Francisco,  Chocan,  Mallares,  Saman  and  other  haciendas. 

Much  of  the  material  that  is  sold  in  foreign  markets  as  pure  woollen  is  made  of  Peruvian 
cotton,  which  is  of  a  very  rough  fibre  measuring  from  one  to  two  inches  in  length.  On  the 
plantations  near  the  coast  the  cotton  is  rougher  than  in  the  interior,  and  is  called  in  English 
markets  Full  Rough  Peruvian,  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  native  fibres.  When  carded  it 
looks  so  much  like  wool  that  only  an  expert  can  tell  the  difference ;  and  after  being  woven 
into  cloth,  the  distinction  between  the  two  products  can  hardly  be  determined,  except  by 


THE  COTTON  FIELDS  OF  PIURA 


JJ« 


chemical  analysis.  For  this  reason  Peruvian  cotton  has  been  called  "vegetable  wool,"  and 
has  been  used  in  the  manufacture  of  materials  to  serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  real  wool. 

The  native  cotton  plant  is  a  hardy  shrub  which,  if  allowed  to  reach  its  full  height, 
grows  to  from  ten  to  fourteen  feet,  though  the  planter  usually  prunes  it  down  so  that  it 
does  not  exceed  six  or  seven  feet  in  height.  The  Peruvian  cotton  plant  will  live  twenty 
years,  and  will  bear  its  harvest  crop  after  four  or  five  years'  growth,  it  is  the  custom, 
however,  to  sow  fresh  seed  every  three  or  four  years,  as,  when  the  plant  becomes  old,  its 
harvest  grows  lighter  each  year  and  it  is  liable  to  "  blight,"  or  to  the  attacks  of  parasites.  The 
cotton  fields  of  Piura  are  generally  free  from  the  ravages  of  insects,  the  only  annoyance  of 
this  kind  being  a  visitation  of  the  arrebiatado,  an  insect  which  appears  chiefly  in  the  rainy 
season.  As  rain  fails  only  once  or  twice  in  a  dozen  years,  this  evil  is  a  minor  one. 
Besides,  the  arrebiatado  does  not  attack  all  varieties,  the  Egyptian,  or  Upland,  as  it  is  known 
in  the  United  States,  being  free  from  its  onslaughts. 

The  cotton-pickers  on  Piura  plantations  find  occupation  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  though 
two  principal  harvests  are  gathered,  those  of  St.  John's  Day  and  Christmas ;  the  former  lasts 
from  June  to  October  and  the  latter  from  December  to  March.  Men,  women,  and  children 
may  be  seen  in  the  cotton  fields  filling  their  sacks  in  the  shade  of  the  bush,  which  at  harvest 
time  is  thick  with  leaves  and  tall  enough  to  afford  abundant  shelter.  Here  and  there  are  groups 
enjoying  a  little  gossip  as  they  pass  one  another  on  their  way  to  and  from  the  field.  At  the 
various  stations  along  the  railway,  the  scene  is  not  unlike  that  which  is  met  with  wherever 
the  cotton  plant  flourishes.  Tlie  pickers  of  these  valleys  are  less  joyous  and  garrulous  than 
are  the  negroes  of  a  Mississippi  or  Georgia  plantation, — the  melodies  of  Dixie  are  more  musical 
than  the  tristes  of  these  less  volatile  laborers, — but  there  is  always  the  charm  of  tropical  skies 
and  luxuriant  nature  to  brighten  their  faces  with  a  smile  of  good-humored  content. 


IRON   BRIDGE   OVER   THE   PIURA  RIVER. 


When  the  cotton  is  ready  for  market,  it  is  loaded  on  donkeys  and  sent  to  the  nearest 
railway  station  to  be  shipped.    As  the  donkey's  load  must  not  exceed  three  hundred  and 


3^2 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


sixty  pounds,  it  is  customary  to  have  the  cotton  put  up  in  bales  of  from  one  hundred 
and  sixty  to  one  hundred  and  eighty  pounds,  two  bales  being  a  full  load  for  one  of  these 


THE   MARKET   PLACE  AT   CATACAOS. 


carriers.  In  Piura,  Sechura,  Catacaos,  and  in  various  towns  of  the  Chira  valley,  the  large 
importing  houses  of  Peru  have  purchasing  agencies,  and  these  establishments  are  equipped 
with  cotton  gins  and  presses  for  cleansing  the  fibre  and  preparing  it  for  transportation. 
The  cotton  seed  is  nearly  all  exported  to  Europe,  where  it  is  sold  for  five  or  six  pounds 
sterling  per  ton.  The  prices  of  cotton  vary  according  to  the  harvest,  and  to  the  prices 
current  in  the  world's  market,  though  the  cotton  of  the  Piura  valley  is  sold  always  for 
upward  of  eight  cents,  gold,  per  pound.  The  price  has  risen  considerably  within  recent 
years  and  continues  to  advance,  as  the  product  gains  in  favor  in  the  markets  abroad, 
especially  in  New  York,  where  Peruvian  cotton  is  constantly  growing  in  demand. 

Although  the  native  cotton  commands  the  highest  price,  and  is  cultivated  with  least 
labor  on  the  plantations  of  Piura,  yet  the  Egyptian  variety  also  yields  good  returns  for  the 
capital  and  labor  invested,  and  its  culture  constitutes  an  important  source  of  revenue  to 
the  state.    The  Egyptian  grows  to  a  height  of  about  four  feet  and  under  favorable 


THE  COTTON  FIELDS  OF  PIURA  m 

conditions  lives  three  or  four  years.  It  has  an  abundant  foliage,  with  blossoms  that 
deepen  from  a  pale  yellow  to  red  as  they  grow  into  full  bloom.  The  cotton  boll  is  formed 
of  five  carpels,  or  leaves,  and  the  fruit,  when  it  bursts  forth  from  this  enclosure,  is  white 
and  smooth,  in  contrast  to  the  Peruvian,  which  is  of  a  pink  color,  and,  as  already  stated, 
extremely  rough.  The  culture  of  Egyptian  cotton  has  increased  in  favor  within  recent 
years,  in  consequence  of  the  advanced  prices  in  foreign  markets.  In  Mallares  and  Saman, 
especially,  this  variety  is  produced  with  important  results.  One  of  the  advantages  which  it 
enjoys  is  freedom  from  the  "blight,"  which  at  times  invades  other  varieties,  and  the  fact 
that  the  arrebiatado  does  not  attack  it.  Also,  the  Egyptian  yields  a  harvest  six  months 
after  planting,  so  that  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  secure  credit  for  the  outlays  necessary  to 
produce  the  crop.  In  the  cultivation  of  this  variety,  it  is  necessary  to  irrigate  the  land 
several  times  during  the  season,  but  it  flourishes  with  little  labor,  and  is  easily  harvested. 

A  railway,  sixty  miles  in  length,  connects  the  cotton-growing  centres  with  the  chief 
seaport  of  the  department,  Paita,  where  all  the  vessels  engaged  in  trade  on  the  west  coast 
of  South  America  make  regular  calls.  The  harbor  is  visited  several  times  a  week  by 
passenger  and  cargo  steamers  of  English,  North  American,  German,  and  South  American 
lines  and  by  sailing  ships  flying  the  flags  of  all  nations.  Here  the  cotton  bales  are  trans- 
ferred from  the  freight  car  to  the  ship's  hold  to  be  carried  to  foreign  ports;  and  Paita 
presents  an  animated  scene  while  the  cargo  is  being  loaded.  The  railway  extends  from  the 
port  northward  till  it  reaches  the  Chira  valley,  which  it  ascends  as  far  as  Sullana,  an  impor- 
tant cotton  market,  after  which  it  turns  southward,  following  the  valley  of  the  Piura  to  the 
state  capital  and,  five  miles  beyond,  to  Catacaos,  in  the  heart  of  the  cotton  region.  Along 
its  route  are  many  thriving  towns  and  villages,  which  owe  their  existence  chiefly  to  the 
cotton  industry,  though  this  is  by  no  means  the  only  important  product  of  the  department. 

Panama  hats — which  are  not  made  in  Panama  at  all,  and  which,  in  Ecuador  and  Peru, 
where  this  industry  flourishes,  are  called  jipi-japa  (pronounced  "  hippy-happa  "),  from  the 
name  of  the  fibre  used  in  their  manufacture — are  made  in  Catacaos.  The  finest  hats  are 
woven  with  great  care,  the  fibre  being  kept  under  water  during  the  process  and  never 
exposed  to  the  sun  until  the  Inat  is  finished.  On  all  the  passenger  steamers  that  call  at 
Paita,  venders  of  these  hats  may  be  seen  bargaining  with  travellers,  and  the  sales  amount 
to  large  sums,  as  the  most  ordinary  Panama  hat,  when  purchased  from  the  weavers  them- 
selves, costs  at  least  a  pound  sterling.  The  imitation  of  this  article  has  been  so  successfully 
manufactured  that  the  trade  is  greatly  injured  thereby,  though  it  is  said,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  the  genuine  jipi-japa  is  increasing  in  value,  owing  to  its  scarcity  on  the  market. 

Like  other  coast  departments,  Piura  extends  inland  to  the  valleys  of  the  Amazon  head- 
waters, and  includes  in  its  territory  not  only  the  cotton  fields  of  the  coast,  but  the  mines 
of  the  sierra,  the  pastures  of  the  uplands,  and  the  coffee,  tobacco,  and  sugar-cane  of  the 
Montaina.  The  province  of  Ayabaca  has  gold  mines,  forests  in  which  the  valuable  Peruvian 
bark  is  found,  pastures  for  cattle  and  sheep,  and  plantations  of  coffee  and  sugar-cane.  In 
the  district  of  Frias,  every  town  is  a  rose  garden,  and  bee-keeping  is  a  flourishing  industry. 


334 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


Huancabamba  is  a  rich  field  for  cattle-raising,  and  is  especially  noted  for  the  superior  wool 
of  its  sheep,  the  fleece  of  which  is  black,  long,  and  of  silky  texture.  In  its  lower  valleys  are 
cultivated  tobacco,  coffee,  and  sugar-cane.  In  the  provinces  of  Paita  and  Piura  are  vast 
saline  fields,  beds  of  saltpetre,  pitch  deposits,  and  important  petroleum  wells. 

With  the  completion  of  the  proposed  railway  from  Paita  to  the  head  of  navigation  on 
the  IWarailon,  by  which  communication  will  be  established  between  the  extensive  region 
of  the  Montana  and  the  Pacific  coast,  this  department  will  become  one  of  the  most  important 
highways  of  traffic  in  the  republic.  With  its  abundant  resources  and  healthful  climate,  there 
is  every  reason  to  expect  great  development  in  wealth  and  population.  At  present  the 
population  of  Piura,  which  coders  a  territory  of  about  fifteen  thousand  square  miles,  is  a 
little  more  than  two  hundred  thousand. 


A  "BALSA"   LOADED   WITH    FREIGHT,    PAITA. 


CHAPTER  XXIV  ^ 


VINEYARDS    AND    ORCHARDS    OF    THE    SOUTHERN    COAST    REGION 


F' 


'ROM  Lima  southward,  the  coast  valleys 
resemble  those  of  Southern  California, 
though  no  idea  of  their  beauty  and  fertility 
is  to  be  gained  from  a  view  of  the  coast 
line,  which  here  stretches  along  in  the 
same  monotonous  series  of  sandhills  and 
barren  cliffs  that  mark  its  lengtfi  all  the 
way  from  Guayaquil  to  Valparaiso,  with 
only  a  few  green  spots,  as  at  Callao  and 
Arica,  to  brighten  its  sombre  aspect.  Trav- 
ellers find  it  hard  to  believe  that  abundance 
and  fertility  belong  to  a  region  apparently 
so  little  favored,  but,  to  be  convinced,  it  is 
necessary  only  to  disembark  at  one  of  the 
ports  in  the  vicinity  of  these  valleys  and 
to  make  a  half-hour's  trip  into  the  interior 
by  railway.  At  some  of  the  ports,  the 
green  vineyards  and  gardens  run  so  close  to  the  shore  that  only  a  narrow  strip  of  sand 
lies  between.  This  desert  strip  once  crossed,  the  scene  is  changed  completely,  and  nature 
appears  radiant  and  smiling  in  the  midst  of  winding  strearns  and  verdant  fields. 

The  vineyards  of  Peru  are  still  in  the  early  stages  of  development,  though  wine-growing 
has  been  an  industry  of  the  country  for  centuries,  the  first  cuttings  having  been  introduced 
as  early  as  i^^y  by  Carabantes,  when  experiments  were  made  in  viticulture  in  several 
districts  of  the  coast.  The  valleys  and  hillsides  of  lea  and  Moquegua  were  found  to  be 
especially  adapted  for  this  industry,  though  the  vineyards  of  Lima,  Arequipa  and  Tacna 
also  yield  good  harvests.  Wine-growing  has  received  more  attention  within  recent  years 
than  formerly,  and  the  results  are  apparent  in  the  increased  quantity  and  improved  quality 


SUBMARINE   BLASTING    OFF   MOLLENDO. 


336 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


MOQUEGUA.  A  WINE-GROWING  CENTRE  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  COAST   REGION. 


of  the  production.  In  the  Department  of  lea,  the  most  promising  vineyards  are  located 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital  and  in  the  campina  around  Chincha  Alta,  near  the  port  of 
Tambo  de  Mora,  about  a  hundred  miles  south  of  Callao. 

lea  was  formerly  a  province  of  the  Department  of  Lima,  and  was  made  independent  in 
i8^^,  being  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  department  in  1868.  It  comprises  the  three  provinces 
of  lea,  Pisco,  and  Chincha,  all  of  which  border  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  are  almost  entirely 
within  the  coast  zone,  with  the  exception  of  the  province  of  lea,  that  extends  to  the  region  of 
the  sierra  on  the  border  of  Ayaeucho  and  Huancavelica.  This  department,  like  all  the 
others  of  the  coast,  has  a  large  area  of  uncultivated  land  which  is  irrigable  and  should  be 
immensely  productive.  Four  rivers  cross  the  department, — the  Chincha,  Pisco,  lea  and 
Grande, — each  receiving  a  number  of  tributaries,  with  a  water  supply  sufficient  to  fertilize 
all  their  valleys,  if  scientifically  controlled  and  utilized.  The  ancient  inhabitants  knew  how 
to  irrigate  these  lands,  and  the  ruins  of  their  aqueducts  may  still  be  seen  in  various  districts. 
On  the  Pisco  River,  about  thirty  miles  from  its  mouth,  a  waterfall  occurs,  which  could 
easily  supply  a  hundred  thousand  horse-power  for  engineering  purposes.  A  few  miles 
from  the  city  of  lea,  the  capital  of  the  department,  are  situated  the  lakes  of  Huacachina  and 
Cachiche,  famous  for  their  tlierapeutic  properties.  Huacachina  is  a  favorite  resort  for 
invalids,  the  mild  climate  and  picturesque  locality  contributing  to  make  it  popular,  while  the 
curative  effects  of  its  waters,  strongly  impregnated  with  iodine,  are  remarkable.  The  city 
of  lea,  having  a  population  of  about  ten  thousand,  lies  in  the  centre  of  a  large  and  fertile 
valley  and  in  the  midst  of  flourishing  vineyards  and  cotton  plantations. 

The  cultivated  area  of  the  lea  valley  is  estimated  at  forty  thousand  acres,  of  which 
one-fifth  is  covered  with  vineyards.    The  wine-growing  district  extends  along  the  valley 


yiNEYARDS  AND  ORCHARDS  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  COAST 


J37 


from  Huamani,  about  twenty  miles  north  of  the  capital,  to  Ocucaje,  thirty  miles  to  the 
south.  lea  is  the  paradise  of  the  farmer  of  small  means,  there  being  few  large  haciendas  in 
the  valley,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  Ocucaje,  comprising  six  thousand  acres,  and 
Macacona,  with  about  four  thousand  acres.  Many  vineyards  cover  no  more  than  about 
ten  or  fifteen  acres,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  haciendas  comprise  only  from  one  hundred  to  two 
hundred  acres.  Each  hacienda  has  its  vineyard,  though,  at  the  same  time,  a  part  of  the  land 
is  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  maize,  and  tropical  fruits,  such  as  chirimoyas  (custard 
apples),  mangoes,  plantains,  melons,  paltas  (alligator  pears),  and  figs;  on  these  plantations 
are  also  cultivated  vegetables  of  various  kinds, — squash,  camotes  (a  kind  of  potato),  yucca, 
cucumbers,  etc., — and  on  the  uplands  grow  alfalfa,  aji  (a  kind  of  pepper),  and  wheat. 

The  principal  varieties  of  grapes  cultivated  in  the  vineyards  of  lea  are  the  Quebranta, 
Moscatel,  Negra,  and  Moyar,  for  red  wines;  and  the  Albilla  and  Italia,  white  varieties;  though 
there  is  also  a  pink  Italia  grape,  of  rich  flavor,  a  delicious  table  fruit.  The  Italia  produces  a 
liqueur  of  fine  quality;  and  Peruvian  "Pisco"  is  well  known  throughout  the  west  coast  of 
South  America,  its  name  being  derived  from  the  port  at  which  the  earliest  shipments  were 
made.  The  Moscatel  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  a  very  palatable  Sauterne,  and  the  Negra 
produces  a  good  claret.  The  most  prolific  vines  are  those  of  the  Quebranta  variety,  the 
grapes  of  which  are  rich  in  sugar;  this  vine  is  grown  in  nearly  all  the  vineyards  of  Peru.  lea 
is  connected  with  the  seaport  of  Pisco  by  railway,  the  line  extending  for  forty  miles,  in  a  north- 
westerly direction,  across  the  Pampa  of  Chuncanga.  As  the  train  enters  this  sandy  plain  an 
hour  after  leaving  the  capital,  there  is  little  to  charm  the  traveller  in  the  monotonous  view; 
but  the  country  to  the  north  of  Pisco,  between,  that  port  and  Chincha  Alta,  fifteen  miles 
distant,  presents  a  different  aspect,  showing  fields  of  sugar-cane  and  flourishing  vineyards. 


.ux^,.^ 


THE  LANDING   PIER  OF  THE  PORT  OF  PISCO. 


3?8 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


AVENUE   OF   WILLOW   TREES  ON  A  SOUTHERN   COAST   HACIENDA. 


The  principal  estates  of  the  Chincha  valley  are  situated  within  a  few  miles  of  the  port  of 
Tambo  de  Mora,  which  is  connected  with  Chincha  Alta  by  a  railway  seven  miles  in  length. 
This  region,  enclosing  one  of  the  most  prosperous  industrial  centres  of  Peru,  is  drained 
by  the  Chincha  River,  a 
short,  broad  stream  that 
has  its  source  in  the  sierra 
of  Huancavelica,  receiv- 
ing only  a  few  tributaries 
as  it  crosses  the  province 
to  the  sea,  where  it  di- 
vides and  forms  a  delta ; 
in  this  low-lying  district 
are  the  towns  of  Chincha 
Alta,  Chincha  Baja,  Su- 
fiampe,  and  Tambo  de 
Mora,  as  well  as  the  ex- 
tensive haciendas  of  La- 
ran  (nine  thousand  acres), 
San  Jose,  San  Regis,  El 
Carmen,  Hoja  Redonda, 


HARVESTING   ALFALFA   ON   THE    FRISCO   HACIENDA,  NEAR   MOLLENDO. 


yiNEYARDS  AND  ORCHARDS  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  COAST 


3^9 


and  Lurin  Chincha.  Irrigating  ditches, 
or  acequias,  have  been  constructed  to 
convey  water  from  the  river  through 
all  these  estates,  the  distribution  being 
made  under  the  direction  of  a  water 
inspector  employed  by  the  govern- 
ment. In  addition  to  the  acequias, 
every  plantation  has  its  wells,  which 
furnish  plenty  of  water,  even  in  the 
dryest  seasons.  Chincha  Alta  has  the 
most  extensive  and  best  equipped 
wine-growing  establishments  in  Peru. 
Modern  methods  are  employed  in  cul- 
tivating the  grapes  as  well  as  in  the 
pressing,  fermentation,  and  other  de- 
tails, connected  with  the  wine-making 
process.  The  cuttings  are  planted  in 
September,  in  holes  about  three  feet 
deep  and  eight  feet  apart,  one  shoot 
being  placed  in  each ;  during  the  first 
two  or  three  years,  the  young  vine  is 
supported  on  stakes  of  wild  cane,  then 
square  columns  of  adobe,  about  four  feet  high,  are  put  up  at  intervals,  to  serve  as  supports 
for  trellises  built  of  Guayaquil  bamboo  and  willow,  over  which  the  vines  spread  in  rich 
profusion.  Within  ten  or  twelve  years  the  whole  space  is  covered,  forming  a  dense  bower. 
The  average  harvest  of  grapes  in  this  country  gives  nine  hundred  gallons  of  wine  to  the 
acre,  but  in  prosperous  years  the  yield  is  much  heavier. 

It  was  not  until  about  thirty  years  ago  that  the  manufacture  of  wine  was  undertaken 
in  Peru  according  to  European  methods.  Up  to  that  time  every  wine-grower  had  his  own 
little  establishment,  with  a  primitive  wine  press,  etc.,  and  kept  his  jugs  of  wine  in  small 
cellars  built  for  the  purpose.  A  few  of  these  bodegas  remain  at  the  present  time,  but  their 
number  grows  less  and  less  as  the  larger  establishments  buy  up  the  product  of  the  small 
vineyards  at  a  better  price  than  the  owner  can  get  by  making  the  wine  himself.  The  largest 
wine  bodega  in  Peru  is  located  in  Chincha;  it  produces  about  four  hundred  thousand  gallons 
annually.  The  total  output  of  the  province  far  exceeds  that  of  any  other  wine  district  in  the 
republic,  Pisco  coming  second  and  Moquegua  third.  The  entire  yield  of  Peruvian  vineyards 
is  estimated  at  seven  million  gallons  of  wine  and  three  hundred  thousand  gallons  of  spirits. 

Pisco,  the  chief  seaport  of  the  Department  of  lea  and  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
southern  coast,  exports  not  only  the  wine  and  other  products  of  its  own  department,  but  is 
the  outlet  for  the  neighboring  states  of  Huancavelica  and  Ayacucho.     It  is  one  of  the  oldest 


SCENE   ON  A   POULTRY   FARM   IN   SOUTHERN   AREQUIPA. 


340 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


ports  of  Peru,  having  been  founded  in  the  seventeenth  century.  The  annual  exports  from 
Pisco  amount  in  value  to  a  million  dollars  gold,  and  its  imports  to  half  that  amount,  though 
the  wines  of  lea  do  not  represent  the  largest  share  of  the  revenue  of  the  port,  appearing 
as  the  minor  articles  of  commerce. 

Although  the  vineyards  of  Moquegua  have  not  been  cultivated  so  extensively  as  those 
of  Chincha  and  lea,  its  olive  groves  rival  the  best  of  other  sections,  and  all  kinds  of  fruits 
grow  in  its  orchards  and  fields.  The  olives  of  Moquegua  are  particularly  remarkable  for 
their  size,  richness,  and  quality,  equalling  the  best  varieties  produced  in  Seville  and 
California.  This  fruit  was  first  imported  into  Peru  from  Seville,  Spain,  during  the  time  of 
the  viceroyalty,  and  became  perfectly  acclimatized,  producing  a  better  olive  in  its  new  home 
than  in  the  parent  orchard,  though  the  cultivation  was  neglected  in  consequence  of  the 
repeated  gold,  silver,  and  copper  "  finds  "  that  absorbed  the  attention  of  the  people  in  those 
days;  and  it  is  only  within  recent  years  that  the  industry  has  assumed  importance.  In  the 
coast  province  of  Camana,  Department  of  Arequipa,  and  in  Ilo  and  Moquegua,  the  olive 
groves  extend  over  many  acres ;  and,  although  the  industry  is  still  in  its  infancy  and  only 
the  most  primitive  methods  are  used  in  the  elaboration  of  the  fruit,  the  yield  is  thirty  per 
cent  of  pure  oil.  At  present,  the  production  of  olives  does  not  amount  to  sufficient  for  the 
home  market,  and  very  little  is  exported. 

A  favorite  diversion  of  passengers  on  the  steamers  making  the  voyage  along  the  west 
coast  of  South  America  is  to  watch  the  loading  of  the  ships  in  the  various  ports.  At  some  of 
these  ports  baskets  of  dried  figs  and  dates  are  brought  on  board  by  the  local  venders ;  but, 
though  this  is  a  promising  trade,  it  is  still  in  a  primitive  stage  of  development.  The  province 
of  lea  has  a  few  establishments  where  dried  fruits  and  jams  are  prepared,  and  every  year 
shows  an  improvement  in  the  industry. 


A  MILK   VENDER   ON   HER   WAY   TO  MARKET. 


''   OF  THE 
OF 


CHAPTER  XXV 


TACNA   AND   ARICA 


A' 


T  the  time  of  the  Independence,  Arica  was  a 
province  of  Arequipa,  which  then  comprised, 
in  addition  to  its  present  territory,  the  provinces 
of  Moquegua,  Arica,  and  Tarapaca.  Afterward 
Arica  was  divided  to  create  the  province  of  Tacna, 
and,  in  1839,  IVloquegua  was  separated  from  Are- 
quipa and  joined  to  Tacna,  Arica,  and  Tarapaca, 
to  form  the  Department  of  Moquegua.  In  1868, 
Tarapaca  was  made  an  independent  Littoral  Prov- 
ince, with  Iquique  as  its  capital;  and,  in  187^,  the 
province  of  Moquegua  was  elevated  to  the  same 
dignity.  Tacna  and  Arica,  with  the  small  province 
of  Tarata,  which  had  been  formed  the  year  pre- 
vious by  a  division  of  Tacna,  were  then  joined  to 
constitute  the  Department  of  Tacna,  one  of  the 
richest  and  most  important  of  the  republic,  polit- 
ically and  commercially. 

In  Arica,  as  well  as  Tarapaca,  nitrate  exists  in 
large  quantities ;  and  this  product,  the  exports  of 
which  had  already,  in  187^,  reached  a  quarter 
of  a  million  tons  annually,  was  then  rapidly  making  Tarapaca  the  richest  province  of  Peru, 
and  its  capital,  Iquique,  a  flourishing  centre  of  commercial  prosperity.  When  war  brought 
disaster  to  the  country  a  few  years  later,  and  the  indemnity  demanded  by  Chile  meant  the 
dismemberment  of  the  republic,  the  Littoral  Province  of  Tarapaca,  ceded  unconditionally, 
became  a  part  of  Chile  at  the  same  time  that  Tacna  and  Arica  passed  into  the  temporary 
possession  of  that  country,  in  accordance  with  the  treaty  of  Ancon,  in  1883. 

Thus,  by  the  mere  accident  of  being  a  border  province,  Tarapaca — whose  people  had 
fought  for  their  country  in  all  its  battles ;  had  been  taught  from  their  cradles  to  worship  the 

343 


A  VENERABLE   PALM  OF   TACNA. 


M4 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE^V  PERU 


national  heroes  and  to  emulate  their  patriotic  deeds;  had  been  among  the  tlrst  to  join  their 
fellow-countrymen  when  a  call  to  arms  brought  the  nation  into  the  field  against  a  common 


BRIDGE  ACROSS  THE  SAMA  RIVER.  PROVISIONAL  BOUNDARY  BETWEEN   PERU  AND  CHILE. 


foe — Tarapaca,  the  victim  of  circumstances,  was  condemned  to  recognize  the  government 
that  had  issued  a  declaration  of  war  against  its  people,  and,  in  the  hour  of  victory,  had 
demanded  its  territory  as  payment  for  the  costs  of  war.  The  conquering  nation  made  what 
has  been  regarded  by  many  as  an  exorbitant  claim;  but  Chile  acted  on  precedent  and  within 
the  law  of  nations.  The  deplorable  fact  is  not  that  a  country  should  have  taken  the  full 
measure  of  its  reward  for  victory,  but  that,  after  nearly  two  thousand  years  of  Christianity, 
it  should  still  be  permitted  among  Christian  nations  for  one  government  to  demand,  and 
another  to  grant,  the  dismemberment  of  a  united  nation,  whose  sons  have  stood  together  as 
compatriots  through  all  its  vicissitudes,  have  labored  for  its  well-being  and  gloried  in  its 
progress;  and  that  they  and  their  property  should  suddenly  be  placed  under  foreign  juris- 
diction, because  the  decisions  of  a  war  council  will  it  so.  it  is  believed  by  some  pessimists 
that  the  dominion  of  military  force  is  as  strong  to-day  as  ever,  and  that  only  the  necessity 
for  preserving  "  the  balance  of  power "  prevents  wars  of  conquest  in  the  twentieth  century 
as  relentless  as  those  of  the  fifteenth, — but  who,  that  has  seen  the  "  Christ  of  the  Andes," 
or  read  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  can  believe  this  to  be  true  ? 

As  regards  Tacna,  the  situation  being  temporary,  or  presumably  so,  one's  sensibilities 
are  not  so  afflicted  by  the  condition.    When  the  plebiscite  comes,  a  majority  vote  will  suffice 


A  GOLD   TRAIN   EN   ROUTE   FROM  SANTO  DOMINGO  TO  TIRAPATA   WITH   BULLION  IN  BARS. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 


MINES   OF   THE   SIERRA    AND   OTHER   REGIONS 


A' 


SCENE    AT    THE    BORAX    MINES   OF 
AREQUIPA. 


LL  the  world  is  familiar  with  stories  of  the  Incas'  splen- 
dor and  the  viceroys'  luxury,  based  on  the  enormous 
riches  of  Peruvian  mines  in  past  centuries.  Gold  and 
silver  seem  to  have  run  in  streams  of  never-failing  abun- 
dance from  the  sierras  of  this  wonderful  country,  their 
wealth  gleaming  in  temples  dedicated  to  the  worship  of 
the  Sun  in  pre-Columbian  days  and  forming  a  pavement 
for  the  footsteps  of  viceregal  princes  in  the  no  less  flourish- 
ing period  of  colonial  Spain.  But  it  is  not  generally  known 
that  the  decline  of  this  abundance  was  due  entirely  to 
other  causes  than  an  exhaustion  of  the  source  of  supply, 
and  that  the  mineral  wealth  of  Peru  to-day  is,  for  practical 
purposes,  as  great  as  ever.  The  progressive  spirit  of  mod- 
ern enterprise  promises  to  restore  the  prestige  once  en- 
joyed by  Peru  as  the  richest  mining  country  of  the  globe. 
The  natural  development  of  the  mining  industry  was  first  arrested  when  repeated 
uprisings  of  the  Indians  interfered  with  its  interests,  especially  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century;  and  it  was  still  further  checked  by  the  war  of  Independence,  which, 
although  it  brought  the  blessings  of  national  freedom,  left  the  country  in  a  condition  of 
political  disorder  and  confusion,  with  all  industry  comparatively  at  a  standstill.  The  young 
republic  had  neither  funds  nor  experience  adequate  to  meet  the  needs  of  industrial  develop- 
ment; and,  for  many  years,  political  matters  held  supremacy  in  the  national  councils,  to  the 
great  detriment  of  trade  and  financial  well-being. 

But  when  the  effects  of  constitutional  liberty  began  to  be  apparent  in  a  more  stable 
government,  and  the  decline  of  militarism  was  succeeded  by  an  increasing  interest  in 
economic  affairs,  the  nation  turned  its  attention  to  many  sources  of  wealth  that  had 
remained  practically  unworked  for  half  a  century,  and  the  government  stimulated  this 

3^1 


3p  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

awakening  spirit  of  enterprise  by  making  laws  calculated  to  encourage  individual  endeavor 
in  every  branch  of  industry.  The  inauguration  of  the  School  of  Mines  in  1876,  and  the 
adoption,  the  following  year,  of  laws  governing  mining  property  so  as  to  ensure  perpetual 
and  irrevocable  ownership,  proved  of  great  importance  in  promoting  the  mining  interests  of 
the  country.  Foreign  capital  was  encouraged  by  the  liberal  attitude  of  the  Peruvian 
government  to  make  large  investments  in  mineral  lands  of  the  sierra,  and  from  this  period 
date  many  of  the  extensive  foreign  enterprises  now  established  in  Peru. 

The  mining  code  now  in  force  was  promulgated  in  1901 ;  it  has  given  additional  impulse 
to  the  industry,  as,  by  its  terms,  every  facility  is  afforded  for  the  acquirement  of  mining 
property,  as  well  as  ample  liberty  in  working  it  and  perfect  security  in  possession.  The 
rights  of  the  foreigner  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  Peruvian  mine  owner,  no  distinction  of 
nationality  being  made  in  the  conditions  of  ownership.  By  the  law  of  1877,  each  mining 
claim  is  subject  to  a  half-yearly  tax  of  fifteen  soles  (seven  dollars  and  fifty  cents,  gold), 
which  guarantees  possession  as  long  as  it  is  punctually  paid.  A  special  law,  passed  in  1890, 
further  guarantees  that,  until  the  year  1915",  no  new  tax  can  be  imposed  on  the  mining 
industry  or  on  the  export  of  its  products. 

A  mining  claim,  or  pertenencia,  is  usually  marked  off  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram, 
one  hundred  by  two  hundred  metres  in  area,  and  is  of  indefinite  depth.  The  measurement 
is  made  from  an  angle  indicated  by  the  concessionaire.  A  pertenencia  for  a  placer-mining 
property,  a  platinum  bed,  petroleum  deposit,  tin  or  coal  mine,  is  measured  in  the  form  of  a 
square  of  two  hundred  and  thirty  metres  each  side.  The  maximum  of  a  single  concession 
is  sixty  adjoining  claims,  but  any  person  or  company  may  solicit  as  many  concessions  as 
desired,  though  a  separate  petition  must  be  made  for  each,  the  only  charge  for  this  privilege 
being  a  stamp  of  five  soles,  which  covers  the  cost,  whether  the  concession  is  for  one 
claim  or  sixty. 

Mining  property  is  conceded  under  the  direction  of  the  government,  through  the 
Department  of  Fomento,  in  which  a  general  register  of  mines  is  kept,  containing  a  record  of 
all  the  mining  property  in  the  republic  with  the  names  of  concessionaires  and  the  extent  and 
locality  of  their  claims.  As  an  encouragement  to  the  development  of  mining,  the  importa- 
tion of  materials  and  machinery  required  in  the  elaboration  of  metals  and  the  construction 
of  railroads  for  their  transportation  is  allowed  free  of  custom  house  duties.  The  government 
organized,  in  1902,  the  Corps  of  Mining  Engineers,  whose  duties  are  to  promote  the  mining 
interests  of  Peru  by  providing  the  most  thorough  information  obtainable  regarding  the 
geology  and  mineralogy  of  the  country.  Commissions  have  been  appointed  by  this 
organization  to  explore  and  examine  new  regions  and  to  ascertain  their  mineral  wealth,  so 
as  to  secure  such  knowledge  about  them  as  may  be  necessary  in  the  granting  of  concessions 
and  the  general  exploitation  of  mining  lands.  Regular  bulletins  are  published  by  the  Corps 
of  Mining  Engineers,  giving  the  results  of  these  explorations,  their  pages  being  usually 
illustrated  with  interesting  views  of  the  regions  traversed  by  the  appointed  commissions. 
The  School  of  Mines  has  been  of  invaluable  service  in  promoting  a  technical  knowledge  of 


MINES  OF  THE  SIERRA  AND  OTHER  REGIONS 


i^i 


mining  among  the  young  men  of  those  districts  where  such  an  education  is  of  the  greatest 
importance.  Graduates  of  this  school  are  prepared  to  assume  the  management  of  a  mine, 
and  are  qualified  to  direct  the  various  departments  of  mining  industry. 


huXnuco. 

Although  it  is  not  only  in  the  region  of  the  sierra  that  valuable  minerals  are  extracted, — 
since  gold  placers  are  worked  in  the  coast  districts  of  Nasca  and  Camana,  as  well  as  in  the 
valleys  of  Sandia  and  Carabaya,  and  elsewhere  in  the  Montafia, — the  riches  of  the  Peruvian 
Cordilleras  are  so  enormous  and  so  varied  that  to  speak  of  the  sierra  is,  of  necessity,  to 
refer  to  its  mines.  The  Nudo  of  Cerro  de  Pasco  and  the  Nudo  of  Vilcanota  especially  appear 
to  form  storehouses  full  of  vast  treasures  of  metallic  ore;  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  other 
mineral  products  abound ;  and  the  companies  now  engaged  in  developing  these  regions  are 
daily  opening  up  new  properties  of  increasing  importance. 

Cerro  de  Pasco  and  Yauli  are  the  principal  silver  and  copper  mining  districts  of  Peru. 
At  Cerro  de  Pasco,  nearly  every  kind  of  mineral  is  found  within  a  radius  of  a  mile.  A 
North  American  syndicate  purchased  the  mining  properties  of  this  district,  the  first  engineers 
arriving  to  take  charge  of  the  property  in  1901.  The  following  year  the  syndicate  bought 
the  concession  for  the  construction  of  a  railway  from  Oroya  to  Cerro  de  Pasco,  the  line 
being  completed  and  opened  to  traffic  in  1904.    This  railway  is  eighty-two  miles  long,  and 


3S4 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE^V  PERU 


has  a  branch  twenty-five  miles  long  to  the  coal  mines,  while  the  switches  at  the  mines 
and  smelter  cover  twenty  miles  more.  The  road  is  standard  gauge  and  the  locomo- 
tives and  cars  are  of  North  American  manufacture.  The  original  cost  of  construction  and 
equipment  was  about  three  million  dollars.  The  work  of  putting  up  a  smelter  and  furnaces 
was  completed  in  1906,  and  a  reverberatory  and  roasting  plant  is  now  being  installed,  which 
will  greatly  increase  the  production  of  the  establishment.  In  1907  the  annual  capacity  was 
thirty  million  pounds  of  pig-copper,  and  with  the  new  improvements  it  is  estimated  that  the 
quantity  will  be  nearly  doubled. 

The  mines  of  Cerro  de  Pasco  have  been  developed  by  shafts,  the  lowest  level  being  at 
a  depth  of  over  four  hundred  feet.  The  present  output  supplies  the  smelter,  besides  which 
an  ore  reserve  is  accumulated.  All  the  properties  of  the  company  were  purchased  from 
small  owners,  and  include  over  six  hundred  claims  in  the  Cerro  de  Pasco  district,  besides 
about  three  hundred  claims  in  Goillarisquisga,  a  few  miles  to  the  north,  where  valuable  coal 
mines  are  located,  furnishing  eight  hundred  tons  of  this  fuel  daily.     New  properties  have 


CAILLOMA  MINES,  ALTITUDE  SEVENTEEN  THOUSAND  FEET,  DEPARTMENT  OF  AREQUIPA. 


been  recently  purchased  in  the  Morococha  district,  which  is  rich  in  copper  and  silver.     In 
addition  to  these  mines,  the  company  owns  the  Paria  estate  at  Cerro  de  Pasco,  covering 


MlhlES  OF  THE  SIERRA  AND  OTHER  REGIONS 


3^? 


seventy  thousand  acres,  whidi  is  used  for  pasturage  and  dairy  purposes.    A  considerable 
population  is  supported  by  the  various  enterprises  of  the  company,  five  hundred  men  being 


CARMEN   SHAFT,  CERRO   DE    PASCO    MINES. 


employed  on  the  railway,  sixteen  hundred  in  the  smelter,  a  thousand  in  the  silver  and 
copper  mines  and  fifteen  hundred  in  the  coal  mines.  The  syndicate  has  spent  about 
eighteen  million  dollars  on  all  these  properties,  including  the  cost  of  improvements  and 
development,  and  is  now  in  possession  of  one  of  the  most  valuable  mining  districts  of 
the  world. 

The  "Opulent  City  of  Cerro  de  Pasco,"  as  it  was  entitled  by  a  supreme  decree  of  1840, 
is  a  typical  town  of  the  Peruvian  sierras,  it  was  founded  by  the  Viceroy  Amat  in  1771, 
and  became  one  of  the  most  important  towns  of  the  Intendencia  of  Tarma,  which,  under 
the  colonial  government,  embraced  the  present  Departments  of  Junin,  Huanuco,  and 
Ancash.  Cerro  de  Pasco  was  made  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Junin  in  18^1;  the 
cities  of  Jauja,  Tarma,  and  Huancayo  shared  with  it  the  prestige  of  political  centres,  being 
provincial  capitals.  Jauja,  unsurpassed  as  a  sanatorium,  and  destined  to  become  a  famous 
health  resort,  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of  Spanish-America,  having  been  founded  by  the 
conquerors  before  the  site  of  Lima  was  selected  for  the  capital  of  Peru.  Tarma,  founded 
about  the  same  time  as  Jauja,  is  rich  in  minerals  and  claims  additional  importance  from  its 
situation  on  the  highway  of  travel  between  Lima  and  Iquitos. 

In  the  districts  of  Yauli  and  Huarochiri,  which  rank  next  in  importance  to  Cerro  de  Pasco, 
silver  and  copper  are  also  the  principal  metals  extracted,  though  lead  is  an  important  product. 
Smelters  and  other  establishments  for  the  elaboration  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  have  been 


??6 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


installed  at  these  places,  the  works  at  Casapalca,  in  the  Yauli  district,  being  especially 
notable.  For  some  classes  and  grades  of  minerals,  the  process  of  smelting  is  followed, 
while  in  the  treatment  of  others  concentration  is  adopted.  Yauli  is  located  on  the  line  of 
the  Oroya  railway,  in  the  province  of  Tarma,  Department  of  Junin,  and  Huarochiri  lies  a 
few  leagues  to  the  south,  in  the  Department  of  Lima.  Both  these  mining  districts  are 
worked  at  an  altitude  of  twelve  thousand  feet  or  more.  In  the  same  region  of  the  sierra 
are  situated  the  silver-mining  centres  of  Castrovirreina,  Huallanca,  and  Cajatambo,  in  the 
Departments  of  Huancavelica,  Huanuco,  and  Ancash ;  and  farther  north,  in  La  Libertad  and 
Cajamarca,  are  the  mines  of  Salpo  and  Hualgayoc,  which  are  rich  in  silver  ores. 

Everywhere  in  the  Andean  region  silver  is  found,  though  it  is  usually  mixed  with 
copper  or  lead.  Most  of  the  silver  ore  in  the  Cerro  de  Pasco  district  is  of  a  reddish  color, 
due  to  the  oxide  of  iron  it  contains;  the  Peruvian  miners  give  it  the  name  of  cascajo,  or 
gravel.  The  copper  ores,  like  the  silver,  appear  in  combination  with  other  metals,  veins 
of  copper  containing  usually  some  silver  and  gold.  In  Ancash,  lea,  and  Arequipa,  in  the 
coast  zone,  these  copper  deposits  are  also  found,  and  new  smelting  establishments  have 
been  installed  in  these  departments  which  are  contributing  to  increase  the  output  of 
copper  ore.  New  copper  mines  have  been  explored  in  the  provinces  of  Jauja,  Pasco, 
and  elsewhere,  and  prove  to  be  rich  in  ores.  The  industry  is  in  a  more  promising  condi- 
tion than  it  has  ever  been.     Petitions  for  concessions  of  mining  property  are  constantly 


THE  INCA  MINING  COMPANY'S  OFFICES  AT  SANTO  DOMINGO.  BUILT  OF  MAHOGANY. 


reaching  the  government,  a  favorable  augury  for  the  future  development  of  this  valuable 
resource.  Lead  exists  in  large  quantities  in  Yauli,  Huarochiri,  and  several  districts  of  Ancash 
and  Cuzco. 


MINES  OF  THE  SIERRA  AND  OTHER  REGIONS 


5^7 


The  Nudo  of  Vilcanota  embraces  an  extensive  mining  region  to  the  north  and  west  of 
Lal(e  Titicaca ;  and  the  veins  of  precious  metals  follow  the  course  of  the  Cordilleras,  which, 
after  separating,  form  the  Nudo  of  Cerro  de  Pasco.    The  Cailloma  mines,  in  Arequipa,  and 


THE    MAIN    STREET    OF    CERRO    DE    PASCO. 


those  of  the  Lucanas  district,  in  Ayacucho, — both  rich  in  silver, — are  located  in  the  western 
range,  while  those  of  Cuzco  belong  to  the  eastern  and  central  Cordilleras.  Puno  lies  in  the 
heart  of  a  vast  mineral  region;  in  its  provinces  some  of  the  most  productive  mines  of  Peru 
are  to  be  found.  The  Inca  Mining  Company,  in  which  more  than  a  million  dollars  of  North 
American  capital  is  invested,  has  developed  gold  mines  of  enormous  value  in  the  province 
of  Carabaya,  supplying  about  nine-tenths  of  the  gold  coined  in  Peru,  and  having  a  monthly 
output  amounting  in  value  to  ten  thousand  pounds  sterling.  The  history  of  this  enterprise 
is  an  interesting  sequel  to  the  record  of  gold-mining  in  colonial  days. 

During  the  period  of  the  viceroyalty,  the  gold  mines  of  the  province  of  Puno  produced 
vast  wealth,  the  viceroy  once  sending  as  a  gift  to  Charles  V.  a  nugget  that  weighed  a 
hundred  pounds,  taken  from  San  Juan  del  Oro;  and  one  of  his  successors  presented  to 
Philip  IV.  another  famous  nugget,  shaped  like  a  man's  head  and  of  great  size.  When  the 
Indians  revolted  against  Spanish  authority  a  few  years  before  the  war  of  the  Independence, 
those  of  Carabaya  and  Sandia  joined  the  rebel  ranks  and  slaughtered  their  masters,  hoping 
to  be  relieved  from  the  hard  work  of  the  mines.  This  uprising,  and  the  war  of  Independ- 
ence that  followed,  caused  the  mining  industry  to  be  totally  neglected  until  the  middle  of 


3^8 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEfV  PERU 


the  last  century,  when  a  party  of  explorers  looking  for  cascarilla  bark  found  gold  in  the  bed 
of  the  Challuma  River,  and  a  rush  followed,  which  lasted  for  two  or  three  years.  During 
that  time  several  million  dollars'  worth  of  gold  was  taken  out,  and  a  nugget  weighing  over 
four  pounds  was  presented  to  General  Castilla,  then  president  of  Peru.  But  the  system 
of  mining  employed  was  primitive  and,  after  the  first  excitement  passed,  only  a  few  gold- 
diggers  remained,  the  mines  from  that  time  being  worked  on  a  small  scale  until  the  Inca 
Mining  Company  purchased  the  Santo  Domingo  property  a  few  years  ago  and  set  up  a 
large  establishment. 

The  discovery  of  the  Santo  Domingo  gold  mine  was  made  by  a  Peruvian,  Don  Manuel 
Estrada,  but  it  was  the  enterprising  spirit  of  two  North  American  prospectors,  Chester 
Brown  and  Wallace  Hardison,  which  led  to  its  being  exploited  on  a  large  scale.  Mr.  Hardison 
had  seen,  in  Lima,  samples  of  rich  ore  that  had  been  found  in  Carabaya,  and  he  was  not 
long  in  making  his  way  to  the  goldfields  to  investigate  further.  He  was  joined  by 
Mr.  Brown  and  they  went  to  Santo  Domingo  together,  starting  from  the  Southern  railway 
terminus  at  Juliaca  on  muleback,  accompanied  by  their  guides,  and  having  with  them  a 
number  of  llamas  laden  with  provisions  and  blankets.  Both  courage  and  faith  were 
'  required  to  follow 

up  a  trail  in  such 
a  rugged,  moun- 
tainous country 
as  that  over  which 
tlie  Americans 
travelled.  Part  of 
the  route  was 
across  the  high 
sierra,  sixteen 
thousand  feet 
above  sea  level, 
where  the  riders 
could  look  on  a 
sea  of  clouds  roll- 
ing below,  while 
the  sun  blazed 
down  from  a  sky 
of  wonderful 
blue.  Only  those 
who  have  trav- 
elled on  these 
heights  know  how  clear  are  the  skies  and  how  piercing  is  the  white  light  of  the  sun  at 
these  altitudes.    When  there  is  no  sun,  the  weather  is  freezing  cold.    The  wealth  of  the 


A  MINING  TOWN  OF  THE    PUNA. 


MINES  OF  THE  SIERRA  AhID  OTHER  REGIONS 


m 


Santo  Domingo  mine  was  apparent  to  the  prospectors  from  the  first,  and  the  Inca  Mining 
Company  was  organized  at  once  with  capital  to  purchase  the  property. 

The  Inca  Mining 
Company  established 
headquarters  at  Tira- 
pata,  on  the  Southern 
railway  between  Juliaca 
and  Cuzco,  and  imme- 
diately began  to  develop 
their  mining  property.  A 
concession  was  obtained 
from  the  Peruvian  gov- 
ernment, under  which 
the  company  built  a 
wagon  road  from  Tira- 
pata  to  Santo  Domingo, 
a  distance  of  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles.    In- 


LLAMAS   AND   DONKEYS   AWAITING    CARGO   AT    CERRO    Db    PASCO. 


return  for  opening  up  the 
country  in  this  way,  the 

company  received  about  two  thousand  acres  for  every  mile  of  wagon  road  completed. 
The  route  lies  almost  due  north  for  seventy  miles,  from  Tirapata  to  Crucero,  passing  the 
small  towns  of  Asillo  and  San  Anton,  in  the  midst  of  excellent  grazing  lands  for  sheep  and 
alpacas.  Crucero,  which  was  once  the  capital  of  Carabaya  province,  is  also  the  centre  of  a 
pastoral  district.  A  few  miles  beyond  Crucero  the  road  crosses  the  Aricoma  Pass  at  an 
altitude  of  sixteen  thousand  feet,  and  then  begins  the  descent  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Andes  to  Limbani,  which  marks  the  beginning  of  the  timber  line  and  the  limit  of  established 
government  authority.  From  this  point  the  journey  is  made  at  times  through  the  virgin 
forest  and  always  through  a  region  little  frequented  by  the  white  man.  Agualani  Station  is 
the  next  stopping  place,  where  travellers  find  sleeping  accommodations.  After  leaving  this 
place,  the  road  crosses  the  Inambari  River  at  La  Oroya,  over  a  bridge  three  hundred  feet 
long,  and  a  few  hours'  riding  brings  one  to  Santo  Domingo.  The  administration  house  of  the 
company  at  Santo  Domingo  is  built  of  solid  mahogany  and  fitted  up  with  all  modern  comforts. 
Here  in  the  heart  of  the  forest,  hundreds  of  miles  from  a  railway,  are  to  be  found  the  con- 
veniences of  electric  lights,  hot  baths,  electric  fans,  and  other  comforts  supposed  to  belong 
only  to  the  favored  residents  of  a  great  metropolis.  The  employes  have  a  tennis  court,  and  a 
telephone  connects  Santo  Domingo  with  Tirapata,  which  has  telegraphic  communication  with 
the  other  cities  of  the  republic  and,  through  them,  with  the  outside  world.  Modern  mining 
machinery  has  been  put  up  at  Santo  Domingo,  at  great  cost  of  labor  and  money;  three  years 
were  consumed  in  getting  the  stamp  mill  to  the  mines.    A  few  miles  beyond  Santo  Domingo 


360 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


the  rubber  country  begins,  through  which  the  company  has  built  a  road  to  the  Madre  de  Dios, 
as  elsewhere  described.  In  the  same  region  in  which  the  Inca  Mining  Company's  properties 
are  located  are  the  mines  of  Montebello  and  the  Lavaderos  de  Oro,  famous  in  colonial  times. 
The  Lavaderos  de  Oro  mines  are  in  Carabaya,  the  streams  of  which  are  nearly  all  gold- 
bearing.  The  Rinconada  Mining  Company  of  North  America,  with  a  capital  of  two  million 
dollars,  is  working  rich  properties  in  the  districts  of  Poto  and  Quiaca,  province  of  Sandia. 

There  is  not  a  single  Department  of  Peru  in  which  gold  has  not  been  found,  though  in 
many  districts  its  mining  is  still  among  the  primitive  industries,  the  Indians  washing  it  out  of 
the  streams  that  drain  their  commtmldades,  and  using  the  nuggets  and  gold  dust  as  a  medium 
of  exchange.  It  is  not  unusual  for  an  Indian  of  the  Maranon,  Sandia,  Urubamba,  or  other 
valleys,  to  offer  a  little  sack  of  gold  nuggets  in  payment  for  his  tobacco  and  similar  luxuries 
purchased  in  the  stores  of  interior  towns.  A  curious  process  of  placer-mining  has  long 
existed  among  the  Indians,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  origin  of  one  of  their  popular 
sayings  that  "in  Peru  one  can  sow  stones  and  harvest  gold."  It  is  still  in  vogue  in  some 
districts,  and  consists  in  laying  flat  stones  along  the  bed  of  a  gold-bearing  river  during  the 
dry  season,  in  such  a  way  that,  when  the  rains  come  and  the  mountain  streams  bring  down 
in  their  current  the  precious  gravel,  these  nuggets  are  caught  in  the  spaces  between  the 
stones  and  held  there.  When  the  river  falls,  or  disappears,  as  it  does  in  many  cases  during 
the  dr^'  season,  the  Indian  sower  of  stones  reaps  his  harvest  of  gold. 


OLD   CHURCH    IN    THE    MINING    TOWN   OF   CAILLOMA. 


The  question  of  transportation  has  hitherto  been  such  a  very  important  factor  in 
determining  whether  mining  properties  were  worth  developing  or  not,  that  some  rich 


MINES  OF  THE  SIERRA  AND  OTHER  REGIONS 


j6i 


MINERS  ARRIVING  AT  AN   INN   IN   THE  SIERRA. 


deposits  have  been  allowed  to  remain  untouched,  and  regions  known  to  abound  in  valuable 
metals  have  been  only  partly  explored,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  and  expense  attending 
any  effort  to  penetrate  beyond  a  certain  radius,  accessible  to  the  railways.  In  this  connection, 
the  work  of  the  Corps  of 
Mining  Engineers  has  proved 
of  inestimable  value,  their 
surveys  extending  to  every 
region,  so  that  they  are  rap- 
idly effacing  from  the  map 
of  Peru  its  Teiritorio  inex- 
plorado.  Every  expedition 
sent  into  the  interior  returns 
with  fresh  information  re- 
garding the  country's  min- 
eral resources ;  and  deposits, 
hitiierto  unknown  to  exist, 
have  been  brought  to  light 
under  the  investigations  of 
scientific  commissions. 

In  colonial  days,   Peru 
was  famous  for  its  quicksilver 

deposits,  and  the  mine  of  Santa  Barbara  in  the  Department  of  Huancavelica,  was  the  centre 
of  this  industry,  which  was  of  great  service  in  facilitating  the  amalgamation  of  silver  ores. 
The  history  of  Huancavelica  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  pages  in  the  mining  records  of 
Peru,  the  quicksilver  mines  of  this  region  being,  in  the  time  of  the  viceroyalty,  the  richest 
in  the  world.  Cinnabar  has  been  proved  to  exist  in  abundance  for  thirty  miles  around 
the  Santa  Barbara  mine,  in  as  many  as  fifty  hills  of  the  neighborhood.  Veins  of  this  red 
sulphuret  of  mercury  are  also  found  in  the  Departments  of  Cajamarca,  Huanuco,  Junin, 
Ayacucho,  Cuzco,  and  Puno,  and  it  has  been  worked  in  various  mines.  The  mineral  pro- 
duction of  Huancavelica  is  undergoing  a  revival,  and  a  new  era  of  prosperity  is  dawning  for 
this  historic  district. 

The  discovery  of  large  deposits  of  bituminous  and  anthracite  coal  is  regarded  as  of 
particular  importance  in  a  country  where  it  is  required  so  generally  for  mining  purposes. 
The  exploitation  of  this  mineral  is  just  beginning  to  show  results,  the  mines  of  Goillaris- 
quisga  being  the  most  important.  Anthracite  coal  is  found  in  Ancash,  La  Libertad,  and 
other  departments;  in  Cuzco  are  beds  of  coal  containing  the  trunks  of  trees  perfectly 
carbonized.  Along  the  lower  banks  of  the  Ucayali  River,  and  in  various  districts-of  Puno, 
lignite  exists  in  considerable  quantities.  Peat  is  abundant,  especially  in  Junin,  where  it  is 
known  as  clhimpa.  It  is  used  a  great  deal  throughout  this  region,  and  is  a  combustible 
of  great  value. 


362 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


With  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  coal  as  the  basis  of  her  mineral  wealth,  Peru  has 
numerous  other  deposits  which,  once  developed,  must  yield  a  large  revenue.  Already  the 
petroleum  wells  of  Tumbes,  Piura,  and  Puno  give  promise  of  producing  great  wealth,  and 
new  discoveries  of  this  liquid  bitumen  are  continually  being  made,  it  is  found  at  Chimbote 
and  near  Casma, — both  in  Ancash  Department, — and  it  abounds  in  the  district  of  Palpa,  in  lea. 
Jauja,  Huancavelica,  and  Cuzco  also  have  petroleum  deposits,  and  there  are  evidences  of 
its  presence  in  several  other  districts.  Foreign  capital  is  already  invested  in  this  field,  which 
is  apparently  of  vast  productiveness.  The  two  principal  centres  of  the  industry  at  present 
are  in  the  northern  coast  region — especially  at  Tumbes  and  Piura — and  in  the  vicinity  of 
Lake  Titicaca,  in  the  district  of  Pusi,  Department  of  Puno.  There  are  two  petroleum 
refineries  in  Peru,  and  these  are  but  the  forerunners  of  more  extensive  establishments. 
The  Titicaca  Oil  Company  sank  eight  wells  in  the  Department  of  Puno,  in  five  of  which  oil 
was  struck,  and  the  industry  has  attracted  the  attention  of  capitalists  who  are  prepared  to 
develop  it  on  a  large  scale. 

In  Tumbes  and  Piura,  great  masses  of  sulphur  have  been  found  almost  on  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  and  the  beds  are  being  worked  by  a  rich  company.    The  mineral  contains  fifty 


SAN   JULIAN    MINE.  CASTROVIRREINA. 


per  cent  of  sulphur,  and  when  elaborated  the  product  is  ninety-eight  pure.    The  coast 
country  is  rich  in  mineral  salts,  especially  of  soda,  magnesia,  etc.;  chloride  of  sodium  is 


MlhlES   OF  THE  SIERRA  AND   OTHER  REGIONS 


J63 


found  in  Morrope,  in  the  Department  of  Lambayeque,  and  saltpetre  exists  not  only  in  the 
provinces  of  the  coast  but  in  Cajamarca  and  otlier  interior  departments.    There  are  important 


THIi    MINING    TOWN   OF   CASAPALCA.   DEPARTMENT   OF    LIMA. 


beds  of  borax  in  several  of  the  southern  states,  those  of  Arequipa  yielding  large  quantities 
of  this  useful  product.  The  borax  beds  of  Arequipa  were  discovered  in  1893  by  Don  Juan 
Manuel  de  Escurra,  who  formed  a  company  for  their  exploitation,  the  enterprise  being  now 
in  the  hands  of  a  large  syndicate,  the  Borax  Consolidated  Limited,  which  has  an  extensive 
establishment,  with  all  modern  improvements,  including  twelve  reverberatory  ovens  for 
drying  the  borax.  The  Laguna  de  Salinas,  where  the  borax  is  found,  lies  just  west  of 
Arequipa  on  the  pampa  between  the  Misti  and  the  Pichu-Pichu. 

Iron  is  met  with  in  almost  every  mining  district  of  Peru.  \n  the  province  of  Galea,  in 
Cuzco,  mines  have  been  discovered  containing  iron  with  a  grade  of  eighty  per  cent  pure 
metal.  They  have  been  little  worked  owing  to  the  expense  connected  with  their  exploita- 
tion. Nickel  abounds  in  the  northern  districts  of  Ayacucho;  mica  of  superior  quality  has 
recently  been  found  in  one  of  the  coast  provinces  of  Arequipa ;  bismuth  exists  in  various 
districts,  and  Junin  has  deposits  of  bismuth-ochre  containing  forty  per  cent  of  bismuth. 
Molybdenum,  which  is  constantly  increasing  in  demand  for  amalgamating  purposes,  is 
exploited  in  Jauja  and  Cerro  de  Pasco;  and,  in  the  neighboring  Department  of  Ayacucho, 
iron,  manganese,  and  wolfram  are  taken  out  of  the  mines  of  Lircay.  It  would  be  difficult  to 
name  a  mineral  that  is  not  to  be  found  somewhere  in  Peru ;  and  its  marbles,  granites,  and 
other  fine  stones  are  of  the  highest  value  for  architectural  and  constructive  work.  Kaolin, 
cement,  and  other  clays  for  ceramic  purposes  are  abundant,  and  may  be  utilized  in  manu- 
facturing the  finest  pottery  and  porcelains.    The  ancient  Peruvians  had  the  secret  of  making 


364 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


their  urns  and  vases  of  pottery  so  very  light  in  weight  as  to  be  remarkable  for  this  feature 
among  all  the  ancient  potteries;  one  of  the  tests  used  by  experts  in  determining  whether 
the  huacas  that  are  sold  as  antiques  in  the  Lima  stores  are  genuine  or  false  consists  in 
weighing  the  article,  the  modern  imitators  being  unable  to  produce  a  pottery  as  light 
as  the  original. 

The  exports  from  Peruvian  mines  show  increasing  development  of  the  mining  industry 
annually.  The  production  of  silver  last  year  amounted  to  about  five  million  dollars  in 
value,  and  of  copper  to  a  little  over  that  amount ;  petroleum  was  taken  out  to  the  value  of  a 
million  and  a  half  dollars,  gold  of  a  million  dollars,  and  other  minerals  in  paying  quantities. 
During  1907,  the  Cerro  de  Pasco  mine  shipped  ten  thousand  tons  of  copper,  more  than  a 
third  of  all  that  South  America  exported  to  the  United  States  that  year,  and  the  output  for 
1908  is  estimated  at  fifteen  thousand  tons.  It  is  predicted  that  the  ultimate  copper  output 
of  Cerro  de  Pasco  will  reach  fifty  thousand  tons. 


HEADQUARTERS  OF   THE   CERRO   DE    PASCO   MINING   COMPANY   AT   CERRO   DE    PASCO. 


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CHAPTER  XXVII 


THE   OROYA   RAILWAY,  THE   HIGHEST   IN   THE   WORLD 


T' 


'HE  central  mining  region  of  the  sierra  is  con- 
nected with  the  chief  national  seaport  by  the 
Central  Railway,  or,  as  it  is  popularly  called,  the' 
Oroya  Route,  one  of  the  most  important  lines  of  Peru 
and  the  most  remarkable  in  the  world,  not  only  be- 
cause of  the  altitude  attained  at  its  highest  point,  six- 
teen thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  but  as  a  colossal 
feat  of  engineering  unequalled  in  railway  construc- 
tion. No  other  railway  route  compares  with  that 
of  Oroya  as  an  example  of  daring  enterprise  in  the 
face  of  tremendous  obstacles ;  and  it  stands  a  great 
monument  to  the  awakened  spirit  of  progress  which 
began  to  be  shown  as  soon  as  militarism  declined 
in  Peru,  and  which  has  become  especially  evident 
in  the  moral  and  material  development  of  that 
country  within  the  past  decade. 
The  building  of  the  Oroya  railway  was  begun  in  1870,  under  the  direction  of  a  North 
American  engineer,  Mr.  Henry  Meiggs,  with  whom  the  contract  for  its  construction  was 
signed  by  the  Peruvian  government.  Within  six  years,  the  line  was  opened  up  to  traffic 
as  far  as  Chicla,  ninety  miles  from  Callao,  at  an  altitude  of  thirteen  thousand  feet,  and 
was  graded  and  placed  under  construction  from  that  point  to  Ticlio,  near  the  summit  of 
Mount  Meiggs,  where  the  Galera  tunnel  pierces  the  peak  at  an  altitude  of  sixteen  thousand 
feet,  the  highest  place  along  the  line.  In  1877,  Mr.  Meiggs  died,  and  the  work  was  sus- 
pended, having  already  cost  nearly  five  million  pounds  sterling.  The  war  with  Chile 
followed,  bringing  a  train  of  evils  in  its  wake,  and  the  government  found  it  impossible 
to  continue  the  construction  until  1891,  when  the  line  was  taken  over  by  the  Peruvian 

Corporation  and  completed  to  Oroya,  being  opened  in  1893.     A  branch  line  had  been 

367 


CHOSICA   BRIDGE.  OROYA  ROUTE. 


368 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEfV  PERU 


built  by  Mr.  Meiggs  from  Lima  to  Ancon  soon  after  beginning  his  work,  and  to  this  have 
since  been  added  the  Morococha  branch,  from  Ticlio  to  Morococha,  and  the  Cerro  de  Pasco 


CHOSICA,  A  HEALTH   RESORT  ON  THE  OROYA   ROUTE. 


line,  the  property  of  the  Cerro  de  Pasco  Mining  Company,  from  Oroya  to  the  great  mining 
centre.  The  Oroya  Route  has  recently  been  extended  to  Huancayo,  and  is  under  con- 
struction to  Ayacucho.  It  will  be  continued  to  Abancay  and  Cuzco,  to  unite  with  the  line 
connecting  Cuzco  with  Puno,  which  is  to  be  extended  to  the  Desaguadero  River  on  the 
boundary  between  Peru  and  Bolivia,  where  it  will  join  the  Guaqui  and  La  Paz  railway, 
to  form  part  of  the  great  Pan-American  system.  From  Cerro  de  Pasco  northward,  the 
trunk  line  has  been  built  as  far  as  Goillarisquisga,  and  is  under  construction  from  that 
point  to  Huanuco,  to  join  other  links  in  the  chain  which,  when  completed,  will  extend, 
in  Peru,  from  the  border  of  Ecuador  to  Lake  Titicaca. 

From  Callao  to  Oroya,  the  distance  is  less  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  but  along 
this  short  route  the  railway  passes  through  every  variety  of  scenery  and  climate,  from  the 
sandy  level  of  a  tropical  coast  to  the  frozen  peaks  of  the  lofty  pmu,  far  above  the  limit 
of  vegetation.  Between  these  extremes  lie  the  flourishing  sugar  plantations  and  maize 
fields  of  the  coast;  orchards  of  chirimoyas,  paltas,  peaches,  apricots,  granadillas,  oranges, 
lemons,  etc.,  that  grow  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  sierra;  all  the  flowers,  ferns,  and 
mountain  shrubs  that  flourish  in  rocky  glens  and  shady  ravines  under  nature's  most 
favorable  conditions,  up  to  a  height  of  ten  thousand  feet;  and,  above  this  limit,  the  bare, 
bleak  aspect  of  the  pima,  where  mining  establishments  mark  the  locality  of  rich  veins  of 
precious  metal,  and  the  circle  of  the  horizon  is  everywhere  limited  by  snowclad  summits. 


THE  OROYA  RAILWAY,  THE  HIGHEST  IN   THE  H^ORLD  J69 

Along  the  valley  of  the  Rimac  River,  from  the  sea  to  its  source,  the  Oroya  railway  climbs 
the  sierra  with  innumerable  curves  and  yet  without  a  single  decline  throughout  its  length 
until  the  highest  altitude  is  passed  in  the  Galera  tunnel,  and  the  descent  begins  on  the 
slope  of  the  inter-Andean  valley.  More  than  twenty  bridges  cross  the  river  along 
the  course  of  the  railway;  the  mountain  side  is  tunnelled  in  many  places,  and  in  others  the 
line  hangs  over  precipices  projecting  so  far  out  that  a  stone  dropped  from  the  car  as  it 
curves  along  the  brink  falls  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river  below. 

The  journey  from  Lima  to  Oroya  may  be  made  in  a  day,  the  train  leaving  the  station 
of  Desamparados  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  arriving  at  Oroya  at  five  in  the 
evening.  It  affords  an  opportunity  to  see  one  of  the  scenic  wonders  of  the  world,  and 
is  an  experience  never  to  be  forgotten.  As  the  train  leaves  the  Lima  station,  a  short 
distance  from  the  Balta  bridge  and  within  full  view  of  the  broad  bed  of  the  Rimac,  the 
retreating  city  offers  only  a  partial  glimpse  of  its  gleaming  church  towers  and  the  avenues 
of  shade  trees  that  adorn  its  suburbs.  The  picturesque  Cerro  of  San  Cristobal,  with  a 
cross  illuminating  its  summit,  stands  out  in  clear  relief  against  the  sky  and  may  be  seen 
until  the  train  passes  beliind  the  Andean  foothills  on  its  way  to  Santa  Clara.    Although 


MATUCANA,  EIGHT   THOUSAND  FEET  ABOVE   THE   SEA,  OROYA   ROUTE. 

this  point  is  more  than  a  thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  it  differs  little  in  aspect  from 
the  country  around  Lima.     Wherever  the  waters  of  the  Rimac  have  been  brought  into 


J70 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


service  to  fertilize  tlie  gardens  and  plantations  of  the  valley,  exuberant  vegetation  exists,  and 
abundant  harvests  smile  under  the  blue  skies ;  it  is  only  beyond  this  strip  of  green  that  the 
sandy  plain  and  gray,  barren  hillsides  are  to  be  seen.    That  the  Incas  had  all  the  coast  region 

under  cultivation  is 
indicated  by  the  ex- 
istence of  their  ruined 
cities  in  the  very 
midst  of  the  desert 
and  their  andenes 
along  hillsides  that, 
to-day,  are  counted 
of  little  value  for  agri- 
cultural purposes.  At 
Santa  Clara,  a  short 
walk  from  the  station 
takes  one  to  the  ruins 
of  an  Incaic  town, 
which,  to  judge  from 
what  remains,  must 
have  been  a  very 
populous  settlement 
centuries  ago.  its 
appearance  to-day 
is  one  of  utter 
dreariness,  and  it  is 
difficult  to  imagine 
what  charm  such  a 
site  could  have  of- 

RAILWAY  STATION   IN  THE  SIERRA.  OROYA   ROUTE.  fcrcd   for  the  lOCatlOn 

of  a  city. 
For  fifteen  miles  beyond  Santa  Clara,  the  railway  train  climbs  upward  until  the  town 
of  Chosica  is  reached,  the  scenery  increasing  in  beauty  as  the  valley  narrows  between 
the  hills  of  the  sierra  and  the  foliage  of  the  mountain  side  grows  fresher  and  of  more 
gorgeous  hues.  Chosica  is  one  of  the  most  popular  health  resorts  of  Peru,  and  has  a 
delightful  climate  all  the  year  round.  Situated  in  the  midst  of  mountains  at  an  altitude 
of  three  thousand  feet,  it  possesses  many  advantages  as  a  sanitarium  for  invalids,  and  is  a 
pleasant  place  of  residence  for  those  who  like  a  restful  and  quiet  retreat.  The  sky  is  blue 
during  most  of  the  year,  and  the  pure  atmosphere  is  exhilarating  to  tired  nerves  and  over- 
wrought spirits.  Here  one  may  enjoy  life  in  its  simplicity,  as  Chosica  has  not  taken  on  the 
fashionable  airs  and  expensive  luxuries  of  the  modern  spa,  though  supplying  its  greatest 


^^gmffUfr 

Ife^N^ 

^  Tv    tmnufim 

>■-'               ^ 

THE  OROYA  RAILWAY,  THE  HIGHEST  IN   THE  IVORLD 


n» 


benefits.  Aside  from  its  attractiveness  as  a  health  resort  and  a  picturesque  mountain  city, 
Chosica  is  important  as  the  first  distributing  point  for  the  electricity  which  supplies  light  and 
power  to  the  cities  of  Lima  and  Callao  and  their  suburbs. 

From  Chosica  to  Matucana,  the  scenery  is  ever-varying  and  always  magnificent.  The 
train  climbs  five  thousand  feet  within  a  distance  of  thirty  miles,  crossing  the  chasm  of  the 
river  many  times  and  plunging  through  tunnels  that  succeed  one  another  with  remarkable 
frequency.  Purguay  and  Corona  are  the  first  bridges  of  importance  along  the  line.  Soon 
after  leaving  tiiem  behind,  the  train  sweeps  around  the  magnificent  curve  of  San  Bartolome, 
passing  through  its  famous  orchards  and  gardens,  and  bringing  into  view  all  the  glories  of 
mountain  foliage  that  adorn  the  sierra  at  this  altitude.  Purple  and  white  heliotrope,  convol- 
vulus, clematis,  the  maguey  plant,  and  the  cactus  are  seen  in  profusion.  Birds  of  bright 
plumage  and  butterflies  of  variegated  wings  give  life  to  a  scene  which  is  impressively  silent, 
save  for  the  hard  breathing  of  the  locomotive  as  it  plods  sturdily  around  the  curves. 
Though  the  valley  broadens  at  San  Bartolome,  it  is  soon  enclosed  again  between  gigantic 


CHILCA.  A  MINING   TOWN   ON   THE  OROYA   ROUTE. 


walls  of  mountains;  and,  a  few  miles  further  on,  the  Verrugas  bridge,  the  longest  and 
highest  of  the  Oroya  Route,  spans  the  space  between  opposite  walls  of  granite  that  rise 

This  bridge  is  five  hundred  and  seventy-five 


from  the  river  bed  to  tower  among  the  clouds 


372 


THE  OLD  AND    THE  NEIV  PERU 


feet  long  and  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  above  the  river,  which  looks  like  a  ribbon 
of  silver  as  it  sparkles  at  the  bottom  of  the  ravine.    After  crossing  Verrugas  bridge,  the 

train  disappears  for  a 
moment  in  the  tunnel 
of  Cuesta  Blanca, 
emerging  in  the  midst 
of  the  grandest  scen- 
ery imaginable  as  it 
pushes  on  through 
Surco  and  across  the 
Challapa  bridge  to 
Matucana,  where  a 
welcome  half-hour's 
stop  is  made.  Matu- 
cana is,  like  Chosica, 
a  favorite  health  re- 
sort, and  the  pines  and 
eucalyptus  trees  of  the 
neighborhood  give 
added  healthfulness  to 
its  pure  mountain  air. 
Few  people  suffer 
from  the  rarity  of  the 
atmosphere  at  this  alti- 
tude, though  it  is  well 
to  spend  a  night  here, 
if  one  can  spare  two 
days  for  the  trip  to 
Oroya,  the  rapid  ascent 
from  sea  level  to  six- 
teen thousand  feet 
above  being  a  severe 
trial  to  the  respiration. 
Soroche,  as  the  moun- 
tain sickness  is  called,  does  not  attack  everyone,  nor  is  there  any  certainty  as  to  its  visitation; 
many  people  have  made  repeated  trips  without  feeling  any  inconvenience,  and  have  been 
surprised  by  an  attack  when  they  thought  themselves  immune,  while  others  never  reach 
the  high  altitudes  without  suffering  from  soroche.  The  degree  of  this  most  uncomfortable 
experience  varies  according  to  one's  constitution.  With  some  it  is  confmed  to  a  strenuous 
effort  "to  get  one's  breath,"  while,  with  others,  the  sensation  is  that  of  having  the  head 


OROYA. 


THE  OROYA  RAILkVAY,  THE  HIGHEST  IN  THE  IVORLD  jyj 

slowly  squeezed  in  a  vice,  or  inflated  by  some  process  that  threatens  to  burst  it  like  an 
over-filled  balloon.  None  of  the  phases  of  soroche  are  agreeable,  but,  happily,  the  disturb- 
ance disappears  as  soon  as  a  lower  altitude  is  reached. 

As  the  railway  follows  the  valley  of  the  Rimac  toward  its  source,  the  river  gorge 
becomes  ever  narrower,  the  enclosing  mountains  higher,  and  the  scenery  more  wildly 
grand  and  rugged.  The  railway  train  follows  the  tortuous  line  of  the  gorge,  zigzagging 
along  the  precipice,  visible  only  for  a  few  seconds  from  any  point  along  the  route.  After 
leaving  Matucana,  the  course  is  taken  through  the  very  heart  of  the  sierra,  the  train 
crossing  first  the  bridge  of  the  Negra  quebrada,  then  the  great  links  of  Tambo  de  Viso  and 
Champichaca  in  quick  succession,  these  wonderful  structures  spanning  the  chasm  at 
short  intervals  of  three  or  four  miles.  From  the  car  window,  the  passenger  looks  down 
into  the  depths  below  and  up  to  the  towering  peaks,  and  feels  much  as  if  travelling  in 
mid-air.  At  Tamboraque,  which  is  situated  nearly  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  sea, 
the  scene  changes,  and  the  region  of  the  higher  sierra  comes  into  view,  with  its  mining 
towns  and  snow  mountains.  San  Mateo  quebrada,  in  the  depths  of  which  lies  the  pictur- 
esque town  of  the  same  name,  is  hardly  passed  before  the  train  crosses,  a  mile  away,  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  bridges  of  the  whole  line,  the  Infernillo.  It  stretches  across  a  narrow 
ravine  between  two  walls  of  rocks,  both  of  which  are  tunnelled  so  as  to  provide  a  passage 
for  the  railway.  As  the  train  flashes  out  on  the  bridge  from  invisible  depths  on  one  side 
and  disappears  as  mysteriously  on  the  other,  the  effect  is  singularly  weird.  From  this  point 
to  Galera  tunnel  the  ascent  is  very  steep  and  winding,  the  train  climbing  five  thousand  feet 
in  twenty-five  miles,  crossing  several  bridges  and  passing  through  a  number  of  tunnels. 

All  along  the  Oroya  Route,  from  San  Mateo  to  its  terminus  in  the  sierra,  are  scattered 
mining  towns  of  growing  importance.  Rio  Blanco,  five  miles  from  San  Mateo,  has  impor- 
tant smelting  works,  and  Chicla,  four  miles  away,  a  thousand  feet  higher  up  the  Cordillera, 
lies  in  the  heart  of  a  rich  mineral  district.  It  occupies  a  picturesque  location,  especially  as 
seen  from  the  car  window  after  the  train  has  made  the  immense  loop  necessary  to  carry  it 
across  the  valley  and  up  the  opposite  slope  on  its  way  to  Casapalca  and  Ticlio.  From  this 
eminence  a  magnificent  view  of  the  valley  appears,  with  Chicla  nestling  below  and  snow- 
clad  mountains  looming  in  the  distance. 

Casapalca  is  a  typical  mining  town  of  the  sierra,  with  its  smelters  spread  over  the 
bare,  brown  hillside,  its  great  chimneys  and  its  smoke.  It  is  situated  at  an  altitude  of 
thirteen  thousand  feet,  and  has  a  cold  climate  all  the  year  round,  invigorating  and  healthful. 
From  Casapalca  to  Ticlio  the  distance  is  about  ten  miles,  and  the  region  of  perpetual  snow 
appears  as  the  train  pulls  up  the  last  few  leagues  toward  the  Galera  tunnel.  The  summit 
of  Mount  Meiggs,  which  is  seventeen  thousand  five  hundred  and  seventy-five  feet  high, 
is  nearly  always  wrapped  in  snow,  though  the  tunnel  entrance  is  below  the  perpetual 
snow  line. 

Of  the  sixty  tunnels  along  the  Oroya  Route,  that  of  Galera  is  the  longest,  measuring 
nearly  four  thousand  feet  in  length.     It  is  in  the  middle  of  this  tunnel  that  the  highest 


374 


THE  OLD  ^ND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


point  along  the  line  is  reached.  From  this  tunnel  eastward,  the  train  descends  toward 
Oroya,  passing  through  the  mining  town  of  Yauli  and  skirting  the  bank  of  the  inter-Andean 
River  Mantaro,  a  branch  of  the  Perene,  which,  later,  joins  the  Ucayali  on  its  way  to  the 
main  waters  of  the  Amazon.  When  the  train  stops  at  Oroya,  sunset  is  already  approaching, 
and  the  colors  of  the  retiring  monarch  of  day  are  to  be  seen  reflected  on  the  surrounding 
peaks  and  glowing  in  the  western  sky.  From  the  window  of  the  little  hotel  where 
lodging  is  found  for  the  night,  one  looks  on  a  humble  though  interesting  scene  of  pastoral 
simplicity.  Llamas  graze  wherever  the  coarse  puna  grass  is  found,  and  an  occasional 
vicuna  may  be  seen.  The  altitude  of  Oroya  is  little  more  than  twelve  thousand  feet,  and 
a  greater  descent  is  made  from  Oroya  to  Jauja  and  Huancayo,  the  latter  being  only  about 
ten  thousand  feet  above  sea  level.  From  Oroya  to  Cerro  de  Pasco,  the  railway  makes  an 
ascent  of  nearly  two  thousand  feet. 


GALHRA  TUNNEL    HIGHEST   POINT  ON   THE   OROYA   RAILWAY,  NEARLY 
SEVENTEEN   THOUSAND  FEET  ABOVE   THE  SEA. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 


A  TRIP   OVER   THE   SOUTHERN   ROUTE— NEW   RAILWAYS   AND   PUBLIC   ROADS 


IN  no  country  have  greater  obstacles  been 
overcome  in  the  construction  of  railways 
and  public  roads  than  in  Peru,  the  physical 
features  of  whicli  present  the  most  varied 
peculiarities.  The  millions  that  were  spent  in 
building  the  Oroya  railway  alone  would  have 
sufficed  to  cover  many  times  its  mileage  on  a 
level  plain;  and  nearly  all  the  railways  of  the 
country  present  evidences  of  difficult  engineer- 
ing and  expensive  construction.  The  lines  at 
present  in  operation  cover  about  fifteen  hun- 
dred miles,  while  those  projected  and  under 
construction  will  more  than  double  that  mile- 
age. Most  of  these  railways  are  the  property 
of  the  state,  the  Peruvian  Corporation  having 
the  use  and  management  of  them  until  19^6. 
Several  important  lines  belong  to  Peruvian  or 
foreign  enterprises,  or  to  private  concerns ;  and  in  the  extension  of  existing  railways,  these 
enterprises  play  an  important  part.  The  branch  from  Oroya  to  Cerro  de  Pasco  was  built  by 
North  American  capital ;  and  new  lines  are  being  constructed  by  other  foreign  companies. 
The  railways  which  in  1890  were  turned  over  to  the  Peruvian  Corporation  for  a  term  of 
years  in  cancellation  of  the  foreign  debt  of  Peru,  included,  in  addition  to  the  Central,  or 
Oroya  Route,  the  Southern  railway,  and  the  shorter  lines  from  Paita  to  Piura,  sixty  miles; 
from  Pacasmayo  to  Guadalupe  and  Yonan,  the  same  distance;  from  Salaverry  to  Trujillo  and 
Ascope,  fifty  miles;  from  Chimbote  to  Suchiman,  thirty  miles;  and  from  Pisco  to  lea,  fifty 
miles.  Some  of  these  lines  have  since  been  extended,  the  Southern  railway  having  been 
completed  to  Cuzco  in  the  present  year. 

377 


IRON   BRIDGE  OVER   THE   URUBAMBA  RIVER. 


378 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEH^  PERU 


The  Southern  railway  covers  a  distance  of  two  hundred  and  eighty-five  miles,  from 
the  seaport  of  Mollendo  to  Juliaca,  where  it  divides,  the  main  line  going  from  Juliaca  to 


ANCIENT  SUSPENSION   BRIDGE  ON   THE  ROAD  FROM  HUANCAYO  TO  CANETE. 

Cuzco,  two  hundred  miles  to  the  north,  and  a  short  branch  extending  south  for  twenty-five 
miles  to  the  port  of  Puno,  on  Lake  Titicaca.  The  first  section  of  this  railway  was  built  in 
1870,  from  Mollendo  to  Arequipa,  across  the  arid  sandhills  of  the  coast.  A  journey  over  this 
part  of  the  road  has  little  to  offer  in  variety  of  scenery,  yet  there  is  a  peculiar  fascination 
about  its  drifting  crescents  that  seem  to  move  with  rhythmical  undulation  like  the  waves  of 
the  sea.  Barren  and  dull  as  the  prospect  appears,  it  is  not  without  interest,  because  so 
unlike  anything  one  sees  elsewhere.  Along  the  first  part  of  the  route,  a  glimpse  of  green 
fields  brightens  the  view  as  the  train  skirts  the  valley  of  Tambo  before  entering  the  Pampas 
of  Cachendo  and  Islay,  where  not  a  blade  of  grass  is  to  be  seen.  But  the  most  of  the  route 
lies  across  the  Pampas  until,  within  a  few  miles  of  Arequipa,  the  sierra  comes  into  view,  and 
the  fertile  valley  of  Vitor  is  passed,  with  its  plantations  of  maize  and  its  flourishing  orchards. 
From  this  point,  a  new  railway  is  being  built  to  the  valleys  of  Siguas,  Majes,  and  Camana, 
in  southwestern  Arequipa.  As  the  train  speeds  through  Uchumayo,  Tiabaya,  and  Tingo,  the 
dreariness  of  the  desert  is  forgotten  in  the  smiling  gardens  of  the  campiiia,  and  when  a 
curve  of  the  road  shows  Arequipa's  white  towers  against  a  background  of  green,  with  the 


THE  SOUTHERN  ROUTE— NEIV  R/l I LIV AYS— PUBLIC  ROADS 


379 


snow-crowned  Misti  just  behind,  the  traveller  is  ready  to  believe  all  that  enthusiasm  relates 
in  praise  of  its  charm. 

Mollendo,  the  seaport  terminus  of  the  Southern  railway,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
cities  of  the  southern  coast.  As  it  lies  within  the  arid  region,  its  water  supply  comes  from 
the  sierra  eighty-five  miles  distant,  through  an  aqueduct  made  of  iron  pipes,  from  which 
half  a  million  gallons  of  water  are  discharged  daily.  This  is  said  to  be  the  longest  iron 
aqueduct  in  the  world.  The  port  of  Mollendo  is  visited  by  all  ships  trading  on  the  west 
coast,  aiid  is  the  chief  outlet  for  an  extensive  region  in  Peru  and  northwestern  Bolivia.  In 
order  to  improve  the  port,  a  breakwater  is  now  being  constructed  along  a  reef  of  partially 
submerged  rocks,  extending  about  six  hundred  feet  to  the  northeast  of  Ponce  Island,  which 
forms  the  harbor.  This  breakwater  will  protect  the  bay  from  the  heavy  surf  which  formerly 
dashed  over  the  rocks,  and  will  thus  facilitate  the  working  of  the  launches  in  loading  and 
unloading  merchandise  from  the  ships,  besides  increasing  the  discharging  capacity  of  the 
port.  The  breakwater  consists  of  a  sea  wall  of  concrete  on  the  inner  side  of  the  reef,  with 
heavy  concrete  blocks  weighing  many  tons,  placed  irregularly  to  seaward  to  break  the  force 
of  the  surf.    A  new  landing-place  of  iron  and  concrete  is  also  to  be  constructed. 

The  railway  from  Mollendo  to  Arequipa  reaches  its  highest  altitude  at  its  destination, 
Arequipa  being  situated  eight  hundred  feet  above  sea  level.     From  Arequipa  to  Puno  the 


RAILWAY   UP   THE  SIERRA   FROM  MOLLENDO   TO  AREQUIPA. 


ascent  is  much  greater,  reaching  fifteen  thousand  feet  at  Crucero  Alto,  about  midway  along 
the  route.    The  first  train  from  Arequipa  to  Puno  arrived  at  the  shore  of  Lake  Titicaca 


380 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


MOLLENDO.  TERMINUS  OF   THE   SOUTHERN    RAILWAY. 


on  tlie  I  St  of  January,  1874. 
The  cost  of  this  railway  was 
four  and  a  half  million  pounds 
sterling.  Along  its  route  are 
several  bridges,  and  a  tunnel 
four  hundred  feet  long  pierces 
the  mountain  about  thirty 
miles  east  of  Arequipa.  As 
the  train  begins  its  ascent 
from  Arequipa  to  Juliaca,  the 
city  remains  in  view  for  sev- 
eral miles,  and  the  white  crest 
of  the  Misti  flashes  in  sight 
several  times  before  it  is  hid- 
den finally  behind  the  higher 
peaks  of  the  sierra.  After  crossing  the  Chili  River,  over  a  massive  bridge  sixteen  hundred 
feet  long  and  seventy  feet  above  the  stream,  the  train  makes  a  rapid  run  to  Yura,  fifteen 
miles  distant,  where  the  most  noted  mineral  springs  of  Peru  are  situated,  a  singularly 
picturesque  resort. 

From  Yura,  the  ascent  soon  brings  one  to  the  region  of  the  puna,  and  here  very  little 
vegetation  is  to  be  seen.  Pampa  de  Arrieros  is  as  bleak  and  barren  as  a  plateau  at  an 
altitude  of  thirteen  thousand  feet  always  is;  and  the  train  speeds  along  for  thirty  miles 
with  little  change  of  scene  until  it  crosses  the  Sumbay  bridge  and  climbs  up  to  Vincocaya 
and  Crucero  Alto.  From  Pampa  de  Arrieros,  a  magnificent  view  of  the  snow  mountain 
Coropuna  is  presented,  this  lofty 
peak  towering  nearly  twenty- 
three  thousand  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  The  volcano 
Ubinas  comes  into  view  a  few 
leagues  beyond  Vincocaya,  just 
before  the  station  of  Lagunillas 
is  reached.  Lagunillas,  or  "Lit- 
tle Lagoons "  is  so  called  from 
the  lakes  of  Cachipascana  and 
Saracocha,  which  lie  on  the 
boundary  line  between  the 
Departments  of  Arequipa  and 
Puno,  at  an  alfitude  of  thirteen 
thousand  six  hundred  feet,  more 
than  a  thousand  feet  higher  than  the  town  of  mollendo. 


THE  SOUTHERN  ROUTE— hi El^  RAILPVAYS— PUBLIC  ROADS        381 


^ 

Hi 

B 

'^^-^Kfi 

NEW   RAILWAY   BRIDGE  AND  OLD  COACH   ROAD  BETWEEN  SICUANI  AND  CUZCO. 


Lake  Titicaca.  There  are  few  signs  of  human  activity  at  the  smaller  railway  stations  of  the 
puna,  only  a  few  cloaked  figures  appearing  on  the  platform  as  the  train  stops;  but  at 
the  junction  of  Juliaca  the  scene  is  one  of  animation,  and  many  enterprising  venders  con- 
gregate outside  the  car  windows  to  sell  their  wares.  The  Indian  women,  in  their  short 
skirts  and  maiitos,  or  shawls,  and  their  flat,  stiff-brimmed  hats,  present  a  curious  spectacle 
to  the  foreign  traveller.  Their  dress  is  very  sombre,  in  contrast  to  the  bright  colors  worn 
by  the  Indians  of  the  lower  sierra.  In  Puno,  one  sees  both  the  Aymara  and  the  Quichua 
Indians,  these  two  races  meeting  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca.  The  Aymaras  are  better 
sailors  than  their  cousins  of  the  lower  valleys,  and  the  native  boats,  or  balsas,  that  ply  the 
lake  are  usually  owned  by  Aymara  traders.  The  balsas  are  made  of  the  reeds  of  totora 
which  are  found  on  the  banks  of  the  lake,  and  are  so  lashed  together  as  to  make  the  skiff 
water-tight  and  not  easily  capsized. 

A  few  months  after  the  opening  of  the  railway  from  Mollendo  to  Puno,  two  screw 
steamers,  the  Yavary  and  the  Yapura,  were  launched  for  service  on  the  lake,  having  been 
brought  out  from  England  in  pieces,  which  were  carried  up  to  Puno  with  great  difficulty 
and  put  together  in  the  company's  factory  on  the  lake  shore.  New  steamers  have  since 
been  added ;  the  Inca  and  Cqya,  recently  launched,  have  a  capacity  of  five  hundred  tons,  are 
lighted  by  electricity,  and  provide  accommodations  for  a  hundred  passengers.  The  voyage 
from  Puno  across  to  Guaqui,  the  Bolivian  port,  is  made  in  a  day. 

From  Juliaca  to  Cuzco,  the  journey  is  one  of  constant  and  varied  interest.  Nature 
presents  many  aspects  in  snow  peaks  and  sloping  valleys,  and  on  the  plateau  are  to  be  seen 
herds  of  llamas  and  alpacas.  At  the  railway  stations,  groups  of  Indians  offer  for  sale 
curiously-shaped  objects  in  pottery,  and  the  brilliantly  colored  blankets  of  this  region.    The 


382 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


jars,  water-bottles,  and  ornaments  which  they  make  are  often  highly  glazed  and  wrought 
in  unique  fashion.  Horses,  bearing  cavaliers  of  the  time  of  Charles  V.,  in  full  armor,  are 
favorite  ornaments,  though  there  are  also  water-carriers  and  peddlers  with  packs  on  their 
backs,  and  market  women  of  wonderful  dimensions.  Most  of  these  articles  are  made  to  be 
useful  as  well  as  ornamental,  serving  as  water-bottles,  toothpick-holders,  match  safes,  etc. 
As  works  of  art  these  efforts  are  among  the  crudest,  but  they  are  made  by  the  most  primitive 
process  and  represent  much  patience  and  industry.  At  Pucara,  these  venders  throng  the 
station  platform,  Juliaca  being  more  noted  for  its  blanket  weavers.  The  Indians  are  very 
industrious,  and  whatever  load  they  may  be  carrying  is  never  allowed  to  interfere  with  their 
spinning,  which  goes  on  all  the  time,  the  bundles  being  strapped  on  their  backs  so  as  to 
leave  their  arms  free. 

From  Tirapata,  the  headquarters  of  the  Inca  Mining  Company  and  an  important  town 
of  the  plateau,  the  railway  crosses  a  bridge  and  makes  a  slight  ascent  to  Ayaviri  and  Santa 
Rosa,  and  a  steeper  climb  to  La  Raya,  which  is  the  highest  point  between  Juliaca  and  Cuzco. 
La  Raya  marks  the  boundary  between  the  Departments  of  Puno  and  Cuzco,  and  is  also  the 
summit  of  the  watershed  which  divides  the  Amazon  system  from  that  of  Lake  Titicaca.  It 
is  situated  at  an  altitude  of  fourteen  thousand  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  sea  level. 
From  La  Raya,  the  train  descends  rapidly  to  Aguas  Calientes  (hot  springs),  Marangani,  and 


ANCIENT   VIADUCT   SOTOCCHACA,  AYACUCHO. 


Sicuani,  two  thousand  five  hundred  feet  lower,  in  the  valley  of  the  Vilcanota  River.     Before 
the  completion  of  the  railway  to  Cuzco,  a  diligence  carried  passengers  from  Sicuani  to  the 


THE  SOUTHERN  ROUTE— NEIV  RA I LIV/IYS— PUBLIC  ROADS 


38J 


RAILWAY   ENGINEERS'   CAMP  ON   THE   LINE   BETWEEN 
CHECCACUPE  AND  CUZCO. 


ancient  Inca  capital,  and,  althougli  the  modern  method  of  travel  is  to  be  preferred  for  many 
reasons,  there  was  something  charming  in  the  drive  along  the  old  coach  road  that  cannot  be 
enjoyed  by  the  traveller  who  is 
being  whirled  over  the  route  at 
railway  speed. 

Formerly,  the  train  arrived 
at  Sicuani  in  the  evening  and 
passengers  spent  the  night  in 
one  of  the  quaintest  and  most 
interesting  towns  of  Peru,  be- 
fore taking  the  diligence  to  con- 
tinue their  journey  to  Cuzco. 
The  market  place  of  Sicuani  is  a 
glow  of  color  when  the  Indians 
fill  it  with  their  wares.  In  the 
early  morning  they  may  be  seen 
coming  down  the  mountain  into 
the  town,  the  men  wearing  a 
dress  introduced  by  the  Span- 
iards during  the  time  of  the  viceroyalty,  witli  knee  trousers  and  a  coat  of  the  period 
of  Louis  XIV.,  the  women  gorgeous  in  their  almillas,  or  chemises  of  bright  red  or  yellow; 
their  chamarras,  jackets  of  bright  blue  or  green  velvet;  their  cJmmpes,  many-colored  scarfs 
wound  around  their  waists;  and  their  flat,  broad-brimmed  hats  made  of  cloth,  lined 
with  red  and  covered  with  silver  braid.  They  scurry  along  the  mountain  road  in  high 
glee,  their  llamas  in  the  lead  with  heads  erect  and  long  straight  ears  adorned  with  tassels 
of  red,  yellow  and  green  woollen  yarn.  All  the  dignity  of  the  procession  is  borne  in 
the  stately  carriage  of  the  llamas,  whose  leisurely  movements  are  never  disturbed  by 
anything  but  fright. 

Since  the  railway  has  been  opened  to  Cuzco,  there  is  no  longer  any  necessity  to  break 
the  journey  between  Sicuani  and  that  city,  as  was  done  in  the  days  of  the  diligence,  when 
a  stop  was  made  at  Cusipata,  "  the  happy  place,"  after  a  wonderful  ride  along  the  valley  of 
the  Vilcanota,  crossing  the  Checcacupe  River  and  revelling  in  scenes  full  of  historical 
interest  and  romantic  charm.  The  second  day's  ride  used  to  take  one  from  Cusipata  to 
Cuzco,  past  the  ruins  of  Viracocha's  famous  temple,  and  close  to  the  lake  of  Urcos,  where, 
tradition  says,  the  chain  of  Huascar  was  buried  when  the  Inca's  subjects  learned  that  the 
Spaniards  weTe  coming  to  Cuzco.  This  wonderful  chain  of  gold,  which  is  said  to  have 
been  long  enough  to  enclose  the  plaza  of  Cuzco  three  times  and  so  heavy  that  each  link 
weighed  a  hundred  pounds,  has  been  the  object  of  many  expeditions  to  Urcos.  Near  this 
spot,  Almagro  and  Pizarro  fought  one  of  their  bitterest  battles,  and  in  the  neighborhood 
tradition  locates  many  victories  of  the  Incas'  armies  in  earlier  times. 


^84 


THE  OLD  AhJD   THE  NEIV  PERU 


The  rope  bridges  formerly  swung  across  the  river  have  in  many  cases  been  replaced 
by  bridges  of  stone,  though  a  few  of  the  older  construction  remain  and  are  still  strong  and 
serviceable.  Ruins  of  the  ancient  aqueducts  are  to  be  seen,  as  well  as  the  Incaic  andenes 
of  the  mountain  side.  The  road  passes  through  deep  gulches  mantled  with  green  and 
under  the  shadow  of  sheer  palisades  towering  a  hundred  feet  above.  Rippling  streams  pour 
their  silvery  tide  into  the  river  that  winds  its  broadening  course  along  the  valley,  and  pepper 
trees,  eucalyptus,  furze  bushes  six  feet  high,  and  prickly  cactus,  grow  in  profusion  along 
the  roadside.  The  present  railway  follows  closely  the  old  diligence  road.  From  Urcos,  a 
branch  line  has  been  surveyed  to  the  port  of  Tahuantinsuyo,  on  the  Madre  de  Dios  River, 
and  another  line  is  projected  to  connect  the  city  of  Cuzco  with  Santa  Ana,  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  Convencion,  in  the  same  department.  The  immense  importance  of  the  railway 
to  Santa  Ana  lies  in  the  facilities  it  will  afford  for  traffic  in  the  region  of  the  Montana  that  is 
richest  in  coca  and  other  valuable  products.  The  law  authorizing  the  construction  of  this 
line,  prepared  by  Dr.  Benjamin  de  La  Torre,  was  passed  by  Congress  in  October,  1907,  and 
the  work  is  to  be  completed  in  three  years  more. 


H 

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HIGHWAY  BETWEEN   THE  SIERRA   AND  THE   MONTANA,  IN   THE   DEPARTMENT  OF  JUNIN. 


Not  only  have  the  Central  and  Southern  railways  been  extended  and  supplemented 
with  branch  lines  within  the  past  four  years,  but  nearly  all  the  existing  railways  of  the 


THE  SOUTHERN  ROUTE— NEIV  RAILIVAYS— PUBLIC  RO/IDS        385 

republic  have  been  brought  to  form  links  in  the  general  system  which  the  government  has 
planned  for  the  facilitation  of  traffic  throughout  the  whole  country.     From  the  trunk  line, — 


VIEW  OF  THE  VALLEY   BETWEEN  SICUANI  AND  CUZCO,   SOUTHERN   ROUTE. 


which,  when  completed,  will  extend  from  the  border  of  Ecuador  in  the  northwest  to  that  of 
Bolivia  in  the  southeast, — branches  are  being  built  to  the  head  of  navigation  on  all  the  great 
waterways  of  the  upper  Amazon.  These  lines  will  open  up  the  vast  region  of  the  Montafia 
to  the  ports  of  the  Pacific,  and  will  multiply  the  available  resources  of  the  country  a  hun- 
dredfold. Products  of  the  interior  which  have  been  cut  off  from  the  consumers  of  the 
coast  by  the  great  wall  of  the  Andes,  will  be  exchanged  for  goods  brought  to  the  Pacific 
ports ;  and  months  will  be  saved  in  the  transportation  of  articles  required  for  household  use 
in  the  Amazon  valleys.  It  will  no  longer  be  the  custom  for  deputies  from  Iquitos  to  travel 
to  Lima  by  way  of  Europe  and  Panama,  as  at  present,  rather  than  across  their  own  country, 
because  the  foreign  trip  takes  less  time.  One  of  these  branch  lines  is  that  previously  men- 
tioned as  under  construction  to  connect  Urcos,  on  the  Southern  railway,  with  the  port  of 
Tahuantinsuyo  on  the  Madre  de  Dios ;  another  is  being  built  from  Oroya  to  the  Ucayali  River, 
passing  through  Tarma  and  along  the  present  road  to  the  Pichis  and  Perene  Rivers.  It  is  to  be 
completed  in  191 3.  A  third  line  is  entirely  new,  to  be  constructed  from  the  port  of  Paita  to 
Puerto  Limon  on  the  Marafion  River,  with  a  branch  to  Puerto  Yurimaguas  on  the  Huallaga. 
All  the  railways  projected  and  under  construction  to  connect  the  Pacific  seaports  of  Peru 
with  the  Amazon  tributaries  are  of  political  as  well  as  commercial  importance,  as  they  will 
serve  to  unite  in  closer  bonds  the  people  of  the  coast,  the  sierra  and  the  Montana,  hitherto 
so  remote  from  one  another  as  to  have  few  interests  in  common,  except  such  as  tradition 
and  sentiment  have  preserved. 


j86 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


The  port  of  Paita  offers  many  advantages  as  the  Pacific  terminus  of  a  railway  to  the 
Amazon  waterways.  From  Paita  to  Puerto  Limon  the  distance  is  only  four  hundred  miles, 
and  from  Puerto  Limon  to  Para  it  is  nearly  three  thousand  miles.  At  present,  most  of  the 
commerce  of  the  Montaila  is  carried  down  to  Para  over  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries,  and 
many  of  the  river  routes  are  even  longer  than  that  from  Puerto  Limon.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  railways  between  the  Pacific  coast  and  the  Amazon  will  not  only  provide  much  more 
rapid  transportation,  but  also  a  more  economical  service. 

The  railways  of  the  coast  have  been  extended  during  the  past  four  years  both  longitudi- 
nally and  in  the  direction  of  the  sierra.  From  the  port  of  Tumbes  a  line  was  recently 
completed  to  La  Palizada  and  the  landing-place  of  the  port  was  improved  by  the  construc- 
tion of  a  steel  pier  eight  hundred  feet  in  length.  The  Pacasmayo  and  Yonan  railway  has 
been  extended  to  Chilete  and  Cajamarca,  to  afford  an  outlet  for  the  cereals  and  other  products 
grown  in  those  sections  of  the  sierra.  From  Chimbote  to  Huaraz  and  Recuay  one  of  the 
most  important  of  the  coast  railways  has  been  built.  A  line  is  projected  to  run  direct 
from  Cerro  de  Pasco  to  the  coast,  with  its  seaport  terminus  at  Huacho,  the  concession 
for  its  construction  having  been  given  to  a  North  American  capitalist.  An  important  new 
railway  connects  the  port  of  Ilo  with  the  city  of  Moquegua;  it  was  completed  during  the 
last  months  of  President  Pardo's  administration.  Along  the  shore  of  the  Pacific,  a  railway 
has  recently  been  completed  from  Lima  to  Huacho  on  the  north,  and  another  is  under 
construction  from  the  capital  to  Pisco  in  the  south. 

Not  only  has  railway  construction  received  a  great  impetus  under  the  energetic  and 
progressive  government  of  the  past  few  years,  but  the  public  roads  of  the  country  have 
been  extended  and  improved,  new  bridges  have  been  built,  new  wharves  constructed  in 
several  ports,  and  greater  attention  paid  to  commercial  facilities  than  ever  before. 


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SOUTHERN   KAIUWAY   STATION.  AREQUIPA. 


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CHAPTER  XXIX 


PASTURE    LANDS    OF    THE    PLATEAU— THE    ALPACA    AND   THE    VICUNA    OF   PUNO 


T^HE  extension  of  railways  in  Peru  is  destined  to  aid  greatly 
*      in  the  development  of  one  of  the  most  promising  indus- 
tries of  the  country,  the  raising  of  cattle,  sheep,  alpacas,  and 
other  live  stock.    On  the  high  tablelands  of  Cajamarca,  Junin, 
Ayacucho,  and  Puno,  and  in  the  upper  valleys  of  Cuzco,  the 
climate  and  pasturage  are  particularly  adapted  to  cattle-farming 
and  to  the  production  of  a  hardy  kind  of  sheep,  easily  cared 
for  and  capable  of  great  improvement  under  scientific  culture. 
The  difficulties    of   transportation    formerly   interfered  with 
success  in  cattle-raising;  but,  with  the  building  of  new  rail- 
ways that  furnish   facilities  in   shipping   the  cattle,   hides, 
and  wool  from  the  interior,  this  industry  has  received  great 
encouragement  and  is  now  in  a  more  thriving  condition  than 
ever  before.    Some  of  the  large  ranges  of  the  plateau  cover 
an  area  of  more  than  a  hundred  square  miles  and  afford 
pasturage  for  twenty-five  thousand  head  of  cattle.    On  the 
plains  of  Puno,  thousands  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  alpaca  are  pastured,  the  wool  industry 
receiving  especial  attention  in  this  department,  which  may  be  called  the  "wool-growing 
state  "  of  Peru. 

The  cattle  of  Cajamarca,  La  Libertad,  Ancash,  Junin,  Lima,  and  Arequipa  are  the  best, 
as  in  these  regions  there  is  abundance  of  lucerne,  grass,  sorghum,  and  other  good  pasturage. 
In  these  departments,  also,  the  native  stock  has  been  improved  by  crossing  with  foreign 
varieties,  imported  for  the  purpose.  The  criollo  cattle,  the  result  of  cross-breeding,  are  a 
fine  race,  and  good  for  dairy  purposes,  cows  giving  as  much  as  three  or  four  gallons  of 
milk  daily.  The  imported  cattle  usually  belong  to  well-known  European  stock,  chiefly  the 
Holstein,  Brown  Swiss,  Ayrshire,  Devon,  and  Jersey  varieties.  The  Sociedad  Ganadera 
de  Junin  is  doing  much  to  raise  the  standard  of  cattle  culture  in  that  department,  and  is 

389 


A  NATIVE  FAMILY  OF  THE   PUNA. 


390 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


establishing  dairies  for  tlie  manufacture  of  butter,  cheese,  and  other  products,  wliich  are 
now  largely  imported  from  Europe.     On  some  of  the  sheep  farms  the  ewe's  milk  is  used 


THE    PRINCIPAL    PLAZA  OF    PUNO. 


in  making  a  very  fine  quality  of  cheese,  and  it  is  believed  that  this  industry  may  be 
so  developed  as  to  compete  with  the  famous  Roquefort  cheese. 

Nearly  all  the  native  live  stock  of  Peru  is  of  Spanish  origin,  the  first  horses,  cattle, 
and  sheep  having  been  imported  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest.  The  llama,  alpaca,  and 
vicufia  are,  of  course,  of  Andean  origin.  The  Peruvian  horses  are  descendants  of  the 
Arab  stock,  the  best  specimens  being  reared  on  the  coast,  though  there  is  ample  oppor- 
tunity for  increasing  both  the  quality  and  the  number  of  good  horses  in  the  inter-Andean 
region,  and,  especially,  on  the  higher  slopes  of  the  Montana.  The  government  is  devoting 
considerable  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the  live  stock  of  the  country,  the  National 
Society  of  Agriculture  stimulating  endeavor  in  this  direction  by  competitive  exhibitions. 

The  live  stock  farms  show  the  effects  of  progressive  enterprise.  The  Atocsaico 
hacienda,  covering  eighteen  square  leagues  on  the  plateau  of  Junin,  has  fourteen  leagues 
enclosed  in  wire  fences,  and  is  provided  with  many  modern  conveniences.  The  adminis- 
tration house  is  a  commodious  dwelling  built  of  wood  and  lined  with  zinc,  besides  which 


PASTURES  OF  THE  PLATEAU— ALPACAS— yiCUN AS 


J9I 


there  are  outhouses,  storerooms,  and  stables,  and  a  small  hydraulic  press.  The  hacienda 
also  has  corrals  and  a  bathing  place  for  the  sheep,  built  according  to  the  Australian 
system,  a  tank  of  concrete  for  the  water  and  iron  apparatus  arranged  over  an  oven 
for  heating  water  and  preparing  the  bath.  Ten  Scotch  shepherds  are  employed,  and 
they  are  well  paid,  having  houses  provided  for  them,  with  some  of  their  food  supplies, 
besides  good  monthly  wages.  The  Scotch  collie  accompanies  his  master,  and,  in  addi- 
tion to  ten  of  these  dogs,  three  Scotch  greyhounds  are  kept;  all  the  dogs  are  provided 
witii  comfortable  kennels.  Another  farm  of  the  same  region,  the  Castaneda  hacienda, 
has  a  fme  dairy  and  a  tannery  completely  equipped  for  the  treatment  of  all  kinds  of 
skins.  There  is  a  large  field  in  Peru  for  the  tanning  industry,  which  is  still  in  the  infancy 
of  development. 

The  native  sheep  of  the  plateau  are  of  small  stature,  long-legged,  thick-skinned,  and 
have  a  rough  and  scanty  fleece;  but  when  this  puna  variety  is  crossed  with  the  imported 
merino  sheep,  the  criollo  offspring  are  larger,  not  so  thick-skinned  and  have  abundant 
wool  of  a  much  curlier  and  fmer  quality.  The  shearing  takes  place  annually,  the 
production  being  from  five  to  eight  pounds  of  wool  per  head,  according  to  the  age  of 


SHEEP  ON  THE   PASTURES  OF  ANCASH. 


the  sheep  and  the  kind  of  pasture.    The  most  important  wool-growing  industry  is  that 
of  the  plateaus  on  which  the  llama,  alpaca  and  vicuna  have  their  haunts. 


392 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEI4^  PERU 


LLAMAS  GRAZING  ON   THE   PUNA. 


The  Department  of  Puno 
is  particularly  noted  for  its 
alpacas,  which  have  remark- 
ably heavy  fleeces  of  great 
length.  The  alpaca  is  sheared 
every  two  years  and  gives 
from  six  to  nine  pounds  of 
wool,  the  best  quality  being 
that  of  the  fleece  taken  from 
the  animal  when  three  or  four 
years  old.  The  wool  of  the 
llama  is  much  coarser,  and 
that  of  the  vicuna  a  great  deal 
finer,  than  the  alpaca's  wool. 
The  llama,  sometimes  called 
the  "camel  of  the  Andes,"  is 
chiefly  valued  as  a  beast  of  burden,  while  neither  the  alpaca  nor  the  vicuna  is  employed 
in  this  way.  The  alpaca,  a  smaller  animal  than  the  llama,  and  more  stockily  built,  is 
usually  brown  or  black  in  color,  has  shorter  legs  and  carries  itself  with  less  stately  dignity 
than  the  prouder  llama,  which  seldom  curves  its  long  neck,  holding  its  head  high  and 
turning  it  from  side  to  side  with  a  leisurely  movement,  as  it  strides  along  with  slow, 
measured  tread.  The  llama,  alpaca,  and  vicufia  are  best  understood  and  most  easily  man- 
aged by  native  Indian  shepherds,  who  seldom  have  any  trouble  in  leading  them  wherever 
they  will.  The  Indian  never  treats  his  pastoral  charge  with  cruelty,  and  his  methods  are 
distinguished  by  that  nonchalance  and  abundant  leisure  which  seem  to  be  his  most  marked 
characteristics.  The  vicufia  produces  less  wool  than  either  the  llama  or  the  alpaca,  but  its 
fleece  is  of  a  much  finer  quality,  which  brings  better  prices  in  the  European  market.  Peru 
exports  annually  about  four  million  pounds  of  wool. 

The  culture  of  vicuna  wool  deserves  especial  attention  as  it  is  one  of  the  most 
lucrative  industries  of  the  country,  and,  with  intelligent  and  persevering  devotion  to  its 
interests,  may  be  developed  far  beyond  its  present  condition.  The  existence  of  the  vicuna 
in  Peru  dates  back  to  pre-Columbian  times,  when  it  was  a  favorite  offering  of  the  Incas  in 
sacrifice  to  the  God  of  the  Sun  at  the  great  feast  of  Raymi.  The  Spaniards  gave  it  the 
name  of  "  carneiro  de  tierra,"  or  land  sheep ;  and  naturalists  who  travelled  in  Peru  during 
the  time  of  the  viceroyalty  classified  it  as  belonging  to  the  camel  family. 

The  vicuna  stands  from  three  to  four  feet  in  height  and  has  a  long  slender  neck  on 
which  is  set  a  small,  rather  delicately-shaped  head  with  narrow  pointed  ears  that  stand 
upright;  the  body  is  about  three  or  four  feet  in  length,  and  the  legs  are  long  and  very 
slender,  the  hind  legs  being  longer  than  those  in  front,  which  is  an  advantage  to  the 
animal  in  its  mountain  climbing.    The  fleece  is  a  delicate  light  tan  color,  darker  on  the  back 


PASTURES  OF  THE  PLATEAU— /tLPACAS—VICUhl AS 


393 


ARCHED  GATEWAY  OF   PUNO. 


than  elsewhere, 
the  coat  show- 
ing light  under 
the  body  and  on 
the  inside  of  the 
legs,  where  it  is 
almost  white. 
The  vicuna  has 
no  horns  and  its 
chief  defense  is 
the  same  as  that 
of  the  llama, 
which  shows  dis- 
pleasure by  spit- 
ting at  the  offend- 
ing object.  Almost 
as  soon  as  born, 
at  least  within  a 
few  hours  after 
making  its  en- 
trance into  the  world,  this  remarkable  little  animal  is  ready  to  follow  its  mother  on  a  long 
and  tiring  run,  and  by  the  second  day  it  will  show  wonderful  strength  and  velocity  in 
keeping  up  with  the  older  one,  especially  if  they  are  fleeing  from  pursuers. 

Only  in  a  very  limited  region  of  the  Andes  is  the  vicuna  to  be  found,  chiefly  in  Peru 
and  Bolivia,  where  it  seeks  the  highest  parts  of  the  sierra  at  an  altitude  of  from  ten  thousand 
to  fifteen  thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  in  a  region  where  the  temperature  is  below  freezing 
point.  An  interesting  description  of  the  vicuila's  habits  is  given  by  a  Peruvian  writer,  Sefior 
G.  Gutierrez  Madueno,  who  has  made  a  careful  study  of  this  animal.  He  says  that  as  soon 
as  a  family  of  young  vicunas  are  full  grown, — that  is,  when  ten  months  or  a  year  old, — the 
females  make  such  an  onslaught  on  their  brothers,  kicking  and  biting  them,  that  the  latter 
are  forced  to  leave  the  maternal  shelter  and  go  elsewhere,  either  to  form  their  own  menage 
in  an  Adam's  paradise,  or  to  seek  mates  in  other  homes  and  establish  new  relations.  In  any 
case,  not  more  than  one  male  is  permitted  in  a  herd,  which  used  to  number  as  many  as  fifty 
females,  though  few  are  now  seen  to  have  more  than  twenty.  The  chosen  male  always 
leads  the  herd,  keeping  a  certain  distance  ahead  so  as  to  warn  them  of  any  approaching 
danger;  this  he  does  by  making  a  curious  sound,  at  which  his  followers  retreat  to  a  safe 
distance,  usually  up  the  cliffs,  from  which  they  can  look  down  on  the  intruder  and  satisfy 
their  curiosity.  If  a  hunter  kills  the  male,  the  entire  herd  surrounds  the  dead  body  in  an 
effort  to  resuscitate  it,  manifesting  every  sign  of  grief ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  one  of  the  females 
is  killed,  it  is  left  to  its  fate,  while  the  survivors  make  all  speed  to  a  place  of  safety. 


394 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


On  the  high  plains  and  sierras  of  Puno  the  hunting  of  the  alpaca  and  the  vicuila  for 
their  wool  has  been  active  ever  since  colonial  days,  though  it  is  only  within  recent  years 
that  the  necessity  for  protecting  this  important  source  of  wealth  has  occupied  the  attention 
of  the  authorities.  The  government  is  now  thoroughly  awakened  to  the  danger  threatened 
by  a  constant  and  reckless  destruction  of  these  valuable  wool-bearing  animals,  and  laws 
have  been  adopted  looking  to  their  preservation.  The  city  of  Puno,  founded  by  the 
Viceroy  the  Count  of  Lemos  in  the  seventeenth  century,  is  the  central  market  and  shipping 
point  for  the  alpaca  and  vicuna  wool  of  a  large  territory,  and  in  the  museum  of  the  city 
are  to  be  seen  some  rare  specimens  of  beautiful  textiles  woven  from  these  products. 

The  city  of  Puno  lies  on  the  border  of  Lake  Titicaca,  overlooking  that  picturesque  body 
of  water  more  than  twelve  thousand  five  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  it  is  an  interesting 
town,  with  its  great  central  plaza,  its  fine  old  churches,  and  the  handsome  stone  arch  gateway 
that  was  built  under  the  viceroyalty.  A  statue  in  the  plaza  honors  the  memory  of  a  brave 
patriot  who  exchanged  his  judicial  robes  for  the  uniform  of  a  soldier  and  fell  fighting  for  his 
country  in  the  last  war.  The  hospital  and  orphanage  of  San  Juan  de  Dios,  founded  more 
than  thirty  years  ago  by  the  Benevolent  Society,  looks  like  a  haven  of  comfort,  surrounded 
by  pretty  fiower  gardens  and  directed  by  sweet-faced  Sisters  of  Charity.  The  national  col- 
lege of  San  Carlos  represents  the  city's  advancement  in  educational  matters,  its  curriculum 
embracing  practical  as  well  as  theoretical  instruction.  Puno  has  archaeological  interests  also 
as  it  lies  in  the  centre  of  a  district  in  which  are  found  stone  monuments  of  great  antiquity. 
Sallustani  is  the  most  famous  of  these  ruins,  with  a  round  tower  of  unknown  origin. 


LLAMAS-SHOWING  ONE  RECENTLY  SHEARED. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSI 

OF 


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o 


CHAPTER  XXX 


CUZCO,  THE   ANCIENT   INCA   CAPITAL 


A^ 


S  the  Imperial  City  of  the  Children  of  the 
Sun,  Cuzco  was,  four  centuries  ago, 
the  metropolis  of  a  vast  domain,  greater  in 
extent  and  richer  in  treasure  than  most  civil- 
ized countries  of  its  day.  Few  capitals  rivalled 
the  chief  city  of  the  Incas  in  wealth  and  popu- 
lation at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  invasion, 
when,  with  its  rural  environs  that  stretched 
out  for  leagues  in  every  direction,  it  num- 
bered two  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  and 
was  the  centre  of  religious  and  social  influ- 
ence in  all  Peru.  Every  subject  of  the  Inca 
looked  toward  Cuzco  with  pride  and  rever- 
ence, glorying  in  its  palaces  and  temples  and 
bringing  tribute  to  its  sovereigns  from  the 
remotest  provinces,  in  adoration  of  the  royal 
grandeur  and  power.  Gold,  silver,  precious 
stones,  and  fine  textiles  were  constantly 
added  to  the  storehouse  of  treasure  which 
the  sacred  city  guarded  as  the  divine  right  of 
its  princes.  No  wealth  was  ever  permitted  to  leave  its  precincts.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the 
Spaniards  were  amazed  at  the  magnificence  of  its  temples  and  the  abundance  of  its  treasure. 
For  centuries,  the  contributions  had  accumulated,  and  with  each  succeeding  emperor  the 
splendor  of  the  royal  palaces  was  enhanced  by  new  gifts,  and  the  golden  disks  in  the  Sun 
temples  grew  larger  and  of  finer  workmanship. 

It  is  impossible  to  visit  Cuzco  without  finding  its  wonderful  stone  walls  and  ancient 
ruins  objects  of  increasing  interest  and  curiosity.    Every  street  and  alley  tells  a  story  of 

397 


ANCIENT   ADOBE  ARCHWAY   NEAR   CUZCO. 


398 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


Inca  days,  old  walls  of  Incaic  architecture  forming  the  base  of  many  of  the  modern  edifices. 
In  Cuzco  more  than  in  any  other  city  of  the  New  World,  the  ancient  landmarks  have  been 


A  FEAST   DAY  CELEBRATION.  SHOWING  THE   UNIVERSITY  AND  THE  JESUITS'  CHURCH,  CUZCO. 


preserved  in  the  midst  of  modern  changes.  The  Temple  of  the  Sun  and  the  great  fortress 
of  Sacsahuaman,  "the  Capitol  and  Coliseum  of  Peruvian  Rome,"  still  present  interesting 
features  to  the  sightseer,  notwithstanding  the  vandalism  of  the  Conquerors  and  the  destruc- 
tive elements  of  time.  Not  only  is  the  convent  of  Santo  Domingo  built  on  the  foundation 
walls  of  the  ancient  Ccoricancha, — the  greatest  and  richest  of  all  the  temples  of  Inca 
worship, — but  a  Christian  altar  occupies  the  very  place  where  the  sacred  emblem  of  the 
Sun  god  was  guarded  by  the  high  priests  of  Tahuantinsuyo,  and  the  cells  of  the  convent  of 
Santa  Catalina  are  the  same  chambers  that  were  once  reserved  for  the  Virgins  of  the  Sun. 
The  cloister  of  Santo  Domingo  is  formed  of  massive  stone  columns,  which  support  a 
beautifully  carved  archway  surrounding  the  patio  or  inner  garden  of  the  convent.  This  was 
one  of  the  first  edifices  built  by  the  Spaniards  in  Peru ;  and  a  short  distance  away  is  the 
historic  spot  where  the  Conquerors  formed  their  quartel  and  took  refuge  when  overpowered 
by  the  superior  numbers  of  the   Indians.     Tradition  relates  that,  on  one  occasion,  the 


CUZCO,  THE  ANCIENT  INCA  CAPITAL 


399 


Spaniards  were  besieged  in  this  entrencliment,  and  were  about  to  perish, — the  Indians 
having  set  fire  to  the  defences, — when  the  Virgin  Mary  descended  in  a  cloud  to  their 
relief,  accompanied  by  the  patron  saint  of  Spain,  Saint  James,  or  "Santiago,"  on  a  white 
horse.  By  this  divine  interposition,  the  flames  were  extinguished  and  victory  rewarded 
the  brave  propagators  of  the  faith.  The  cathedral  was  erected  near  this  spot,  one  of  its 
chapels,  called  *'  Our  Lady  of  the  Triumph,"  serving  to  commemorate  this  miracle. 

The  old  churches 
and  other  structures  of 
colonial  times  are  as 
interesting  in  their  way 
as  the  remains  of  Incaic 
architecture,  and  Cuzco 
is  full  of  reminiscences 
of  the  viceroyalty.  The 
cathedral,  built  in  the 
style  of  the  Renais- 
sance, was  begun  soon 
after  the  Conquest,  and 
was  not  completed  until 
ninety  years  later,  in  the 
middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  It  is  of 
stone  and  the  cost  of 
construction  was  so 
great  that  one  of  the 
viceroys  remarked  "it 
would  have  been  less 
expensive  in  silver." 
The  interior  consists  of 
three  naves,  separated 
by  stone  pillars  which 
support  high,  vaulted 
arches;  in  the  central 
nave  is  the  choir,  the 
carving  of  which  is 
superb ;  and  in  front  of 
it  stands  the  high  altar, 

covered  with  silver.  Two  organs  fill  the  church  with  the  music  of  their  rich  tones  on  Sun- 
days and  feast  days.  The  cathedral  has  many  paintings,  one  of  which.  El  Sehor  de  la  Agonia, 
is  a  masterpiece,  said  to  be  an  original  Van  Dyck.     In  the  sacristy  are  portraits  of  the  popes 


INTERIOR   OF   THE  JESUITS'   CHURCH,  CUZCO. 


400 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


and  of  all  the  bishops  of  Cuzco.  One  of  the  most  precious  possessions  of  the  cathedral  is 
the  monstrance,  which  is  ornamented  with  pearls,  diamonds,  emeralds,  rubies  and  other 
precious  stones  of  great  value.     In  the  naves  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  main  entrance  to 


THE   PREFECTURE.  CUZCO. 


the  cathedral  are  chapels  dedicated  to  the  images  of  the  Virgin,  our  Lord  and  the  Saints, 
worshipped  in  special  commemoration  of  some  miracle.  The  Indians  are  particularly 
devoted  to  Our  Lord  of  the  Earthquakes,  represented  by  an  image  that  is  blackened  with 
the  smoke  of  candles  that  have  been  placed  on  the  altar  by  innumerable  worshippers.  It  is 
not  unusual  to  see  the  space  in  front  of  this  chapel  occupied  by  a  group  of  Indians  on  their 
knees,  gazing  in  adoration  on  the  image  of  El  Senor  de  los  Temblores,  whom  they  regard  as 
their  especial  protector.  Their  religious  processions  in  his  honor  are  held  on  Monday  of 
Holy  Week  and  are  attended  by  an  immense  concourse. 

The  signal  for  beginning  a  religious  procession  in  Cuzco  is  given  by  the  ringing  of  the 
great  bell  of  the  cathedral,  the  "  Maria  Angola,"  one  of  the  richest  and  clearest-toned  bells 
in  the  world.  The  history  of  the  "  Maria  Angola  "  is  interesting.  It  is  named  in  honor  of  a 
pious  lady  of  Cuzco  who  gave  three  hundred  pounds'  weight  of  gold  to  be  used  in  casting 
it.  This  enormous  bell,  which  is  large  enough  to  cover  a  group  of  eight  men,  was  cast  in 
the  city  of  Cuzco  in  16^9.  An  inclined  plane  had  to  be  built  from  the  cathedral  tower 
to  the  street  in  order  to  raise  the  colossal  piece  of  bronze  to  its  place,  and  the  task  required 
the  employment  of  a  host  of  workmen.    The  prevailing  controversy  of  the  time  when  the 


CUZCO,  THE  ANCIENT  INCA  CAPITAL 


401 


bell  was  made  is  indicated  by  tlie  words  engraved  on  its  border :  Ora  pro  nobis,  Alabada 
sea  el  Sanlisimo  Sacramento  del  Altar y  la  Purishna  Concepcbn  de  Nuestra  Senora,  sin  pecado 
original  ["Pray  for  us;  Glory  be  to  the  most  holy  sacrament  of  the  Altar  and  the  most  pure 
conception  of  Our  Lady,  without  original  sin."]  The  rich,  sonorous  tones  of  the  "  Maria 
Angola"  may  be  heard  twenty-five  miles  away  from  Cuzco,  and  the  music  is  most  beautiful 
and  potent  to  incline  one  to  a  spirit  of  reverence.  When  its  dear  tones  announce  the 
elevation  of  the  Host,  the  venders  in  the  market  place  fall  on  their  knees  and  the  business 
of  buying  and  selling  is  suspended  while  the  solemn  voice  from  the  cathedral  tower  calls  to 
a  more  sacred  duty.  It  is  said  that  the  soft,  vibrant  tone  of  the  "Maria  Angola"  bell  is  due 
to  the  great  amount  of  gold 
in  its  composition. 

When  one  visits  the 
chief  places  of  interest  in 
Cuzco,  there  is  so  much  to 
be  seen  that  it  is  customary 
to  divide  the  time  so  as  to 
make  separate  excursions 
to  the  Incaic  ruins,  the  old 
colonial  churches  and  pal- 
aces, and  finally  to  the  places 
where  modern  enterprise  is 
to  be  seen.  A  day  among  the 
wonders  of  Sacsahuaman, 
the  Rodadero,  the  ancient 
walls  of  Pachacutec's  palace, 
the  house  once  occupied  by 
an  Inca  "  medicine  man  " 
(easily  recognized  by  the 
seven  serpents  carved  in 
relief  on  the  facade),  the  nar- 
row alleys  with  their  curious 
legends,  is  sufficient  to  in- 
spire enthusiasm  for  a  trip 
to  the  neighboring  town  of 
Pisac,  where  it  is  possible  to 
climb  the  mountain  to  the 
observatory  of  Inti-Huatana 
and  spend  interesting  hours  in  speculation  as  to  the  uses  the  Incas  made  of  the  edifice  that 
once  topped  this  almost  inaccessible  eminence.  Still  more  fascinating  are  the  ruins  of  Ollan- 
taytambo,  which  lie  a  few  leagues  north  of  Cuzco,  the  site  of  stupendous  monuments  of  Incaic 


CALLE  MARQUEZ,  CUZCO. 


402 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


architecture,  and  once  the  favorite  summer  residence  of  the  sovereigns  of  Cuzco.    From  the 
height  of  its  walls,  the  prospect  sweeps  to  the  far  horizon,  following  the  beautiful  Urubamba 


THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  CUZCO. 


valley,  or  narrows  to  right  and  left  where  high  mountains  shut  out  a  larger  view.  Far  up 
the  sides  of  these  towering  cliffs  the  Incas'  subjects  were  buried  in  caverns  hollowed  out 
like  swallows'  nests,  the  openings  being  covered  over  with  earth  to  hide  their  sepulchre. 
It  is  not  known  where  the  bodies  of  the  Incas  themselves  were  hidden  when  they  were 
taken  from  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  at  the  approach  of  the  Spaniards.  A  great  treasure 
awaits  the  discoverer,  for  it  is  said  that  when  an  emperor  died  his  body  was  embalmed  and 
placed  in  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  on  a  throne  of  gold ;  both  the  golden  thrones  and  their 
occupants  disappeared  with  the  advent  of  the  Conquerors  and  they  have  never  been  found. 
On  the  site  of  the  Church  of  the  Compaiiia,  or  the  Jesuits'  church,  in  the  Plaza  Matriz, 
once  stood  the  palace  of  the  Inca  Huayna-Ccapac  in  the  midst  of  gardens  that  covered 
the  area  now  occupied  by  the  church  and  the  neighboring  University  of  Cuzco.  The  three 
plazas  now  known  as  Matriz,  Regocijo,  and  San  Francisco,  then  formed  a  single  large 
square,  in  which  were  celebrated  the  grand  public  festivals  dedicated  to  the  Sun ;  it  was 
this  large  square  which  was  encircled  by  the  celebrated  gold  chain  of  Huascar.  None  of  the 
convents  and  churches  built  during  the  viceroyalty  show  greater  architectural  beauty  than 
the  Compafiia.  The  interior  is  cruciform,  has  a  single  broad  nave,  whose  massive  stone 
pillars  are  of  varied  design,  some  round  and  others  square,  with  Doric  capitals,  on  which 


CUZCO,  THE  ANCIEMT  INCA  CAPITAL 


403 


rest  the  great  arches  that  are  the  most  imposing  features  of  its  architecture.    A  large  dome, 
supported  on  four  arches  of  beautiful  design,  marks  the  division  of  the  cross  where  the  nave 
is  met  by  transverse  aisles,  and  on  the  face  of 
tills  rotunda  is  sculptured  the  coat-of-arms  of  the 
Company  of  Jesus,  in  elaborate  design. 

Though  the  interior  of  the  Compafiia  is  a 
magnificent  example  of  the  church  architecture 
of  Cuzco,  the  cloister  of  Merced  is  also  much  to 
be  admired,  with  its  superb  arches  on  the  upper 
and  lower  galleries  surrounding  the  patio,  and  its 
wonderful  staircases  made  of  blocks  of  black 
granite.  The  cloister  itself  is  built  of  stone  taken 
from  the  fortress  of  Sacsahuaman,  the  architec- 
ture being  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Greco- 
Roman  in  style.  Cuzco  has  also,  in  the  parochial 
church  of  San  Bias,  one  of  the  handsomest  pul- 
pits in  existence,  a  superb  specimen  of  the  finest 
wood-carving  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  Cuzco  of  the  hicas  and  the  viceroyalty 
is  so  absorbing  in  interest  that  the  modern  city 
must  pay  the  penalty  of  past  fame  by  a  harder 
struggle  for  present  recognition  than  new  cities 
have  to  experience.    When  a  town  springs  up 

under  the  impulse  of  modern  enterprise,  every  feature  of  its  growth  and  development  is 
noted;  but  when  it  has  "a  history,"  the  greatest  effort  is  necessary  to  win  even  a  passing 
comment  on  its  present  condition.  Cuzco  has  made  notable  progress  within  the  past  few 
years  and  is  constantly  improving  in  social  and  industrial  development.  When  President 
Jose  Pardo  visited  the  city  in  1905',  he  was  impressed  by  the  favorable  outlook  for  this 
section  of  the  republic,  destined  to  be  one  of  the  richest  industrial  centres  of  South  America. 

The  city  of  Cuzco,  capital  of  the  department  of  the  same  name,  occupies  a  central  position 
in  southern  Peru.  It  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Urubamba  River,  on  the  banks  of  the  Huatanay, 
at  an  altitude  of  nearly  twelve  thousand  feet  above  sea  level.  To  the  south  and  west  are  the 
plateaus  and  sierras  of  the  highest  Cordilleras,  while  to  the  north  and  east  the  country  slopes 
rapidly  to  the  region  of  the  Montaila,  with  its  virgin  forests  and  intermingling  waterways. 

The  city  of  Cuzco  is  lighted  with  electricity,  and  has  a  complete  system  of  waterworks, 
recently  installed,  which  ensures  an  abundance  of  water  for  all  purposes,  and  provides  the 
means  for  improving  the  sanitation  of  the  city  and  rendering  it  a  more  desirable  place  of 
residence.  Formerly  the  lack  of  a  sufficient  water  supply  made  it  impossible  for  the 
authorities  to  enforce  hygienic  measures  of  the  greatest  importance;  but  now  that  this 
difficulty  has  been  removed,  Cuzco  is  making  its  streets  clean  and  its  plazas  beautiful.    The 


VENDERS  IN  THE  ARCADE.  CUZCO. 


404 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


water  is  brought  down  from  neighboring  springs  ten  miles  distant,  by  means  of  aqueducts 
and  pipes,  the  old  Spanish  aqueduct  being  also  utilized  for  the  purpose.  From  a  reservoir 
of  masonry,  with  a  capacity  of  three  thousand  cubic  metres,  the  water  is  distributed  at  the 
rate  of  three  hundred  gallons  a  second. 

New  telegraph  and  telephone  lines  connect  Cuzco  with  other  cities  of  the  department, 
long  distance  wires  having  been  established  between  the  capital  and  Paucartambo,  Abancay, 
and  other  points,  in  addition  to  the  national  telegraph  lines.  New  public  buildings  have 
been  constructed  during  the  present  administration,  and  improvements  have  been  made  in 
many  institutions.  The  Prefecture,  which  occupies  the  site  where  Pizarro  lived  when 
in  Cuzco,  was  remodelled  and  beautified  a  short  time  ago. 

Public  instruction  has  received  greater  attention  within  the  past  few  years  than  ever 
before,  and,  from  the  primary  school  to  the  university,  the  tendency  is  in  favor  of  special 
training  with  a  view  to  its  practical  uses.  The  University  of  Cuzco  is  one  of  the  oldest 
educational  institutions  of  Peru,  and  in  its  cloisters  some  of  the  most  noted  Peruvian 
scholars  found  inspiration.  Cuzco  was  the  birthplace  of  the  great  historian  of  the  Incas, 
Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  and  of  the  learned  writers  Castro,  Espinoza  Medrano,  Heras;  Perez, 
who  was  called  "the  bishop  of  epigrams,"  Leonardo  Villar,  a  famous  physician  and  scholar; 
Antonio  Lorena,  the  anthropologist ;  David  Matto,  learned  in  bacteriology ;  Narciso  Arestegui, 
the  novelist;  as  well  as  the  military  leaders.  General  Gamarra,  La  Puerta,  and  many  others 
who  were  proud  to  claim  the  old  Inca  capital  as  their  native  city. 

In  the  new  era  of  progress  on  which  Peru  has  entered  with  so  much  promise,  the 
ancient  Cuzco,  that  was  held  in  reverence  as  the  "centre  of  the  universe"  ages  before 
America  was  discovered  by  the  European,  will  hold  its  own  among  its  more  modern  sister 
cities.  The  treasure  of  its  ancient  ruins  but  adds  interest  to  a  city  that  knows  how  to  keep 
in  line  with  the  march  of  modern  civilization. 


A  RELIGIOUS  PROCESSION   IN  CUZCO. 


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CHAPTER  XXXI 


THE   MONTANA   AND   ITS   PRODUCTS— THE   RUBBER   LANDS   OF   LORETO 


T^HE  region  of  the  Montana  lies  chiefly  in  the 
*  Amazon  plain,  where  the  rubber  trees  and 
hardwoods  of  commerce  grow  in  abundance, 
though  on  its  western  and  southern  border  it 
extends  to  the  slope  of  the  Cordilleras,  covering 
a  territory  rich  in  agricultural  production.  The 
northern  provinces  of  Puno  and  Cuzco  and 
the  eastern  provinces  of  Junin  and  Huanuco, 
as  well  as  the  entire  Departments  of  San 
Martin,  Amazonas,  and  Loreto,  belong  to  the 
region  of  the  Montaila.  Much  of  this  vast 
territory  has  never  been  cultivated,  and  a 
great  deal  of  it  remains  to  be  explored.  It 
is  richer  in  natural  resources  than  any  other 
part  of  Peru,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the 
lower  wooded  region  of  the  rubber  country, 
where  malaria  and  anemia  prevail,  the  climate  is  healthful. 

The  Montafia  really  comprises  two  separate  regions,  the  high  woodlands  of  the  eastern 
Andean  slopes  and  the  level  lands  that  stretch  away  from  their  base  to  tiie  northeastern 
boundary  of  the  republic.  The  high  woodlands  have  a  mild  cool  climate,  similar  to  that 
of  southern  Europe,  and  their  altitude  renders  them  free  from  the  diseases  usually  prevalent 
in  a  tropical  country.  This  part  of  the  Montana  is  a  veritable  paradise,  luxuriant  in  vegeta- 
tion and  marvellously  productive.  The  chief  drawback  to  its  industrial  development  has 
hitherto  been  the  difficulty  of  transporting  its  products  to  market,  owing  to  the  lack  of 
railway  facilities.  Now  that  this  obstacle  is  rapidly  being  removed,  there  is  every  reason 
to  expect  a  greatly  increased  development  of  the  agricultural  wealth  of  the  Montana,  which 

is  an  especially  promising  field  for  immigration. 

407 


INDIANS   CARRYING    COCA   TO   MARKET. 


4o8 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


CANOEING  ON   THE   HUALLAGA   RIVER. 


The  natural  resources  of  the  Montana  include  many  plants,  fruits,  and  herbs  not  found 
in  other  countries.     In  the  warm  valleys  and  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Cordilleras,  at  an 

altitude  of  from  two  thousand 
to  five  thousand  feet  above 
sea  level,  the  coca  plant  grows 
in  abundance.  It  is  a  native 
of  Peru  and  Bolivia  and  has 
not  been  cultivated  success- 
fully in  any  other  part  of  the 
world,  except  to  a  small  ex- 
tent in  Ecuador  and  Colombia. 
From  this  plant  is  manufac- 
tured the  well-known  drug, 
cocaine,  used  so  generally  for 
medicinal  and  surgical  purposes. 
Its  leaves  are  the  Indian's  most 
cherished  consolation;  he  will 
perform  wonderful  feats  of  endurance  if  provided  with  a  small  sack  of  these,  which  he 
chews  as  the  Oriental  does  the  betel,  mixing  them  with  a  kind  of  lime  which  greatly 
increases  the  stimulating  effect. 

The  Peruvian  Indian  eats  little  and  yet,  by  chewing  coca  leaves,  he  is  able  to  make  long 
journeys  on  foot  or  to  do  hard  work  in  the  fields  and  in  the  mines  without  fatigue.  The 
effect  of  the  excessive  use  of  this  stimulant  is  very  harmful,  dulling  the  mental  faculties 
and,  in  extreme  cases,  causing  paralysis.  Used  in  moderation,  it  seems  to  produce  no  bad 
effects,  and  has  even  been  recommended  for  soldiers  on  the  march,  who  are  exposed 
to  fatigue  and  all  kinds  of  weather.  When  taken  as  a  hot  tea,  coca  excites  perspiration ; 
and  it  acts  as  a  sedative  in  asthmatic  attacks.  The  leaves  are  used  for  cataplasms  in 
relieving  rheumatic  pains.  The  curative  effects  following  the  use  of  this  drug  are  so 
numerous  that  it  is  regarded  by  the  Indians  as  a  panacea  for  all  ills.  When  the  Spaniards 
first  arrived  in  Peru,  they  were  unable  to  account  for  the  wonderful  properties  of  the 
coca  plant,  and  in  superstitious  fear  they  prohibited  its  cultivation,  believing  it  to  be  an 
instrument  of  the  devil. 

The  best  locality  for  the  growth  of  the  coca  plant  is  in  warm  valleys,  not  more  than 
five  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  where  the  average  temperature  is  between  fifty  and  eighty 
degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  the  land  is  clayey,  abundant  in  iron,  and  without  the  presence  of 
salts  of  any  kind ;  the  ground  must  be  soft  and  loose,  and  is  best  on  the  hillside,  where  the 
water  of  the  rains  is  quickly  carried  off  and  does  not  leave  the  soil  too  damp,  though 
frequent  rains  are  desirable  to  promote  rapid  and  leafy  growth.  The  first  harvest  is 
gathered  eighteen  months  after  planting,  and  great  care  is  required  in  collecting  the  leaves, 
so  that  the  shrub  may  not  be  injured.     Each  leaf  is  picked  separately  and  dropped  on  a 


THE  MONTANA  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS— LORETO  RUBBER  LANDS    409 

cloth,  spread  on  the  ground  for  the  purpose,  only  the  top  leaves  being  left  on  the  plant  to 
prevent  its  dying  off.  As  a  rule,  three  or  four  crops  are  harvested  every  year,  the  most 
productive  coca  plantations  being  in  the  Departments  of  Cuzco,  Huanuco,  Junin,  and  the 
inter-Andean  valleys  of  Li  Libertad.  The  province  of  Urubamba,  in  the  Department  of 
Cuzco,  is  famous  for  the  abundance  and  fine  quality  of  its  coca,  the  plant  growing  here  to 
a  maximum  height  of  about  six  feet.  The  only  coca  plantations  of  importance  on  the  coast 
slope  of  the  Cordilleras  are  those  of  the  province  of  Yauyos,  in  the  Department  of  Lima. 

A  Peruvian  scientist.  Dr.  Hipolito  Unanue,  was  the  first  to  make  a  thorough  study  of 
the  constituent  properties  of  the  coca  leaf;  and,  in  1859,  an  Austrian  chemist,  Albert  Niemann, 
extracted  from  coca  leaves  the  alkaloid  known  as  cocaine,  which  is  now  manufactured  in 
Peru,  as  well  as  in  other  countries.  A  great  deal  of  the  coca  produced  on  the  various 
plantations  is  consumed  in  the  country,  the  average  Indian  chewing  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
grammes  daily,  in  the  native  factories,  each  pound  of  leaves  yields  from  three  to  four 
grammes  of  cocaine.  The  exportation  of  coca  leaves  amounts  annually  to  upwards  of  three 
million  pounds,  and  that  of  the  manufactured  product,  cocaine,  to  about  fifteen  thousand 
pounds.  The  leaves  are  employed,  in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  not  only  for  the 
manufacture  of  cocaine,  cocaidine,  and  other  alkaloids,  but  in  the  making  of  wines,  tonics, 
and  refreshing  drinks  of  various  kinds. 


SHIPYARD  AT   ASTILLERO.  WHERE  THE  INCA  MINING  COMPANY'S   FIRST  STEAMER  WAS  BUILT. 


Another  product  of  the  Peruvian  Montaiia,  cacao,  promises  to  be  an  important  source 
of  revenue  when  the  industry  is  better  developed.    The  cacao  trees  of  Cuzco  produce  a 


4IO 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


chocolate  of  exceptional  quality  and  a  delicious  cocoa,  the  fruit  being  especially  rich  and 
possessing  the  properties  required  in  chocolate  of  the  best  taste  and  finest  aroma.     But 


CHICAPLAYA,  IN    THE    HEART   OF    THE    MONTANA. 


none  of  the  Cuzco  cacao  ever  gets  into  the  foreign  market,  as  it  is  all  consumed  in  Peru. 
The  cacao  tree  grows  spontaneously  in  many  districts  of  the  Montaiia,  and  requires  little 
cultivation  to  make  it  yield  in  abundance.  Wherever  cacao  orchards  have  been  planted,  the 
results  have  been  eminently  satisfactory,  and  every  year  sees  an  increase  of  cacao 
plantations,  chiefly  in  the  region  of  Chanchamayo,  in  the  province  of  Jaen,  Department  of 
Cajamarca,  and  in  the  lower  provinces  of  Amazonas  and  San  Martin.  The  future  of  the 
cacao  industry  is  particularly  promising,  and  no  other  enterprise  offers  greater  reward  for 
the  slight  labor  invested,  as  the  trees,  once  planted,  continue  to  bear  for  a  hundred  years, 
requiring  no  other  labor  than  the  gathering  of  the  harvest. 

The  largest  coffee  plantations  of  Peru  are  cultivated  in  the  region  of  the  Montafia, 
though  the  coffees  of  Pacasniayo,  on  the  coast,  and  of  Choquisongo,  in  the  sierra,  are  of 
excellent  quality.  Carabaya,  in  the  Department  of  Puno,  produces  some  of  the  best  coffee 
known,  the  Carabaya  bean  being  particularly  rich  in  caffeine.  Chanchamayo  is  also  an 
important  coffee-producing  centre,  more  than  five  million  trees  growing  on  the  haciendas 
of  this  district,  in  the  province  of  Tarma,  Department  of  Junin.  In  one  colony  alone  are 
thirty-five  coffee  plantations,  covering  seventeen  hundred  acres,  on  which  two  million 


THE  MONT/IN /I  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS— LORETO  RUBBER  LANDS    411 

trees  are  cultivated.  The  plantations  are  being  improved  every  year,  and  there  is, 
apparently,  no  reason  why  Peru  should  not  be  among  the  leading  coffee-growing  countries 
of  the  world.  At  present,  a  little  more  than  a  thousand  tons  are  exported  annually,  after 
the  home  market  is  supplied,  as  Peru  imports  no  coffee  of  any  kind. 

All  the  agricultural  products  that  flourish  on  the  coast,  and  many  of  those  that  are 
cultivated  on  the  sierra,  may  be  grown  with  success  in  the  Montana.  Sugar,  rice,  tobacco, 
maize,  and  even  wheat,  barley,  and  potatoes,  thrive  in  some  of  the  provinces  of  Cuzco, 
Junin,  and  other  interior  departments.  Tobacco  is  grown  in  all  the  provinces  of  the 
Montana,  including  those  of  the  Department  of  Loreto,  which  lies  almost  entirely  in 
the  Amazon  plain.  The  cultivation  of  tobacco  is  carried  on  in  the  most  primitive 
fashion,  and  the  plantations  do  not  yield  what  they  are  capable  of  producing  under  more 
scientific  methods. 

The  most  important  industry  of  the  lower  Montana  is  rubber-gathering,  the  forests  of 
the  vast  Amazon  plain  abounding  in  these  trees  of  ever-increasing  commercial  value.  The 
jebe,  or  seringa,  as  it  is  called  in  Brazil,  known  abroad  as  Para  rubber,  grows  best  in  the  low 
lands  of  Loreto,  where  the  altitude  does  not  exceed  three  hundred  feet,  and  where  abundant 
rains  and  an  equatorial  climate  cause  the  warm  humidity  necessary  to  the  production  of  the 


CHUNCHO  INDIANS  OF   THE   PENEDO   VALLEY. 


latex,  or  milk,  of  the  rubber  tree.    The  jebe  grows  to  an  average  height  of  seventy-five 
feet,  the  leaves  forming  a  tuft  of  green  at  the  top ;  the  trunk  is  of  cylindrical  shape,  often 


412 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


MASISEA.  THE   FIRST   WIRELESS  TELEGRAPH   STATION   BUILT   BETWEEN 
PUERTO  BERMUDEZ  AND  IQUITOS. 


measuring  six  or  seven  feet  in  diameter  near  the  base.    The  quality  of  the  latex  is  known 
by  its  color,  the  best  being  of  a  violet  grey  hue  while  the  inferior  latex  is  much  lighter. 

The  rubber  trees  grow 
sometimes  in  groups  of 
eight  or  ten  together, 
and  again  singly,  at 
intervals  of  from  sixty 
to  two  hundred  feet 
apart.  A  jebe  property 
is  usually  defined  by 
estradas,  or  paths,  lead- 
ing past  a  number  of 
rubber  trees,  the  average 
estrada  embracing  an 
area  of  a  hundred  acres, 
more  or  less,  in  which 
are  from  a  hundred  to  a 
hundred  and  fifty  trees, 
yielding  rubber.  One 
man  is  usually  employed  on  each  estrada,  and  his  day's  work  consists  in  tapping  the  trees 
in  the  early  morning  by  notching  a  place  with  a  hatchet  and  fixing  in  it  a  tichela,  or  little 
tin  cup,  to  receive  the  latex,  as  it  oozes  out  of  the  cut.  When  he  has  made  his  round,  he 
returns  to  collect  the  latex,  emptying  the  contents  of  the  Uchela  into  a  pail,  which  he  carries 
to  his  camp  to  be  smoked  in  preparation  for  its  shipment.  The  process  of  "smoking,"  or 
coagulation,  consists  in  twirling  the  latex  around  a  ladle  that  is  held  over  the  smoke  of 
burning  wood,  the  hard  wood  known  as  vegetable  marble  being  best  suited  to  this  purpose. 
The  seringuero,  as  this  class  of  rubber  gatherer  is  called,  collects  upward  of  twenty-five 
pounds  of  rubber  a  year  from  each  tree  in  the  forests  of  Loreto,  northern  Cuzco  and  the 
region  of  the  Madre  de  Dios. 

Besides  the  jebe,  or  Para  rubber,  the  forests  of  the  Montana  yield  great  quantities  of 
the  variety  called  caucho,  which  is  gathered  in  regions  where  the  heat  and  humidity  are 
not  so  great  as  in  the  seringa  lands.  The  cauchero  works  on  a  plan  different  from  that 
of  the  seringuero;  if  he  is  collecting  caucho  in  planchas,  or  slabs,  he  fells  the  tree  near 
a  hole  made  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  latex  as  it  flows,  and  then  he  mixes  this 
fluid  with  common  soap,  or  an  infusion  of  vetilla,  to  bring  about  coagulation ;  if  he  wishes 
to  extract  the  sernambi  de  caucho,  which  is  of  greater  value  than  the  plancha,  his  method 
is  to  bleed  the  tree  by  cutting  deep  gashes  in  it  with  his  machete,  or  hatchet,  and  leaving 
the  milk  to  flow  in  little  canals,  artificially  prepared  to  conduct  the  latex,  which  becomes 
coagulated  on  exposure  to  the  air  and  forms  ribbons  of  rubber,  that  are  rolled  into  balls 
and  shipped  in  this  form.    Each  tree  furnishes,  on  an  average,  about  fifty  pounds  of  caucho. 


THE  MONTANA  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS— LORETO  RUBBER  LANDS    41  j 

A  moderate  duty  is  levied  on  the  exportation  of  all  rubber,  jebe  paying  a  cent  and  a  half, 
gold,  a  pound,  and  caucho  a  cent  a  pound ;  this  rate  is  only  about  one-fifth  of  the  export 
duty  charged  in  Brazil,  and  one-half  that  in  Bolivia. 

Foreign  enterprise  has  done  a  great  deal  in  developing  the  rubber  industry  in  Peru, 
the  government  making  liberal  concessions  to  those  who  purchase  rubber  lands  for  exploita- 
tion. Tracts  of  virgin  woodland  in  the  Montafia  are  sold  at  the  rate  of  a  dollar  an  acre,  and 
grants  are  made  under  liberal  conditions:  a  number  of  acres  of  land,  supposed  to  contain 
rubber  trees,  or  a  number  of  estradas,  may  be  rented  by  paying  one  dollar  for  every 
hundred  pounds  of  rubber  extracted,  the  destruction  of  the  trees  being  forbidden.  The 
Inca  Rubber  Company  is  one  of  the  most  important  foreign  enterprises  in  the  Montana. 
This  company  was  the  outgrowth  of  a  concession  granted  by  the  Peruvian  government 
to  Chester  W.  Brown,  of  the  Inca  Mining  Company,  for  certain  lands  located  in  the 
Montaiia,  in  the  Department  of  Puno.  The  government  ceded  to  the  company  eight 
thousand  acres  of  land  for  every  mile  of  road  opened  to  public  traffic  between  the  Santo 
Domingo  mine  and  the  Madre  de  Dios  River,  or  a  navigable  point  on  the  Tambopata,  the 


A  TURBULENT   TRIBUTARY  OF  THE   MADRE   DE  DIOS  RIVER. 


road  to  be  approximately  seven  feet  wide,  with  a  maximum  grade  of  ten  per  cent  and  to 
afford  all  the  conditions  necessary  for  the  safe  and  comfortable  transportation  of  passengers 


414 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


A   RUBBER   CAMP   IN    THE   MONTANA. 


the  port  is  named,  "Astillero' 
Tambopata.  A  telephone 
connects  Astillero  with 
Santo  Domingo  and  Tira- 
pata,  and  electricity  is 
used  in  lighting  the  town. 
Explorations  have  been 
made  in  this  region  by 
Mr.  Brown  and  Professor 
Baily,  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, and  the  Wilson 
River  was  discovered  by 
an  explorer  sent  out  at 
the  Inca  Rubber  Com- 
pany's expense. 

The  success  of  the 
Inca  Rubber  Company 
has    attracted    other 


meanmg 


and  freight.  Not  only  has  the  road  been 
completed  through  the  rich  rubber  lands  be- 
tween the  Inambari  and  Tambopata  Rivers  to 
the  head  of  navigation  at  Astillero  station,  but 
a  steamer,  the  Inca,  has  been  built  to  con- 
nect this  port  with  Riberalta  and,  by  means 
of  the  San  Antonio  railway — now  under  con- 
struction in  accordance  with  the  Acre  treaty 
between  Bolivia  and  Brazil — with  the  Madeira 
and  Amazon  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The 
completion  of  the  Inca  Rubber  Company's 
road  ensures  an  outlet  to  the  Atlantic  by  a 
short  route  from  the  Pacific,  as  the  Southern 
railway  connects  the  Pacific  port  of  Mollendo 
with  the  station  of  Tirapata,  whence  the 
road  is  built  to  Santo  Domingo,  Puerto  Can- 
damo,  and  Astillero.  From  Tirapata  to  Astil- 
lero, the  distance  is  two  hundred  and  eighty 
miles  through  a  rich  rubber  country.  Over 
this  long  distance,  the  steamer  Inca  was 
brought  in  pieces,  carried  on  the  backs  of 
Indians,  to  the  company's  shipyard,  for  which 
"  shipyard."     Here  it  was  built  and  launched  on  the 


RAPIDS   ON   THE  TAMBOPA 1 A   KlVhR. 


THE  MONTANA  AND  TTS  PRODUCTS— LORETO  RUBBER  LANDS    41^ 

investors  to  the  Montana,  and,  within  the  past  two  years,  several  similar  enterprises  have 
been  inaugurated.     The  Inambari  Para  Rubber  States  Company,  Limited,  was  formed  a 


A  TYPICAL  SCENE   ON   THE   WATERWAYS  OF   THE   UPPER  AMAZON. 


year  ago  with  a  capital  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  pounds,  to  exploit  the  rubber 
of  the  province  of  Carabaya;  the  Paucartambo  Rubber  Company,  Limited,  has  started  an 
enterprise  in  the  Madre  de  Dios  region ;  the  Compafiia  Gomera  Alto  Maraiion  recently  began 
the  development  of  the  rubber  industry  in  the  Department  of  Amazonas,  and  the  Sociedad 
Madre  de  Dios  has  begun  to  work  the  forests  of  the  eastern  rubber  district.  With  the 
increased  output  of  rubber  promised  by  the  successful  exploitation  of  these  properties, 
the  annual  revenue  derived  from  this  source  will  undoubtedly  show  rapid  gain.  The 
financial  crisis  which  affected  the  North  American  market  in  1907  was  severely  felt  in 
the  rubber  trade  of  the  Amazon  region,  the  shipments  of  this  product  being  cut  down 
to  an  alarmingly  low  quantity.  The  new  enterprises  felt  the  disastrous  conditions  most 
keenly,  though  all  the  rubber  establishments  of  the  Amazon  country  suffered  greatly. 
The  loss  was  heavy  also  to  those  merchants  who  depend  on  the  success  of  the  rubber 
trade  for  their  prosperity.  In  Iquitos,  as  well  as  in  the  ports  of  the  lower  Amazon, 
the  whole  business  atmosphere  was  pervaded  with  gloom  for  a  time;  though  it  was 
understood  that  the  depression  could  only  be  temporary,  as  the  demand  for  rubber 
is  constantly  increasing,  and  the  purposes  for  which  it  may  be  employed  appear  to 


4i6 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


be  of  an  almost  unlimited  variety.  A  passing  money  crisis  is  not  sulTicient  to  imperil  the 
interests  of  a  trade  which  is  of  world  wide  importance;  and  the  steamers  and  launches 
of  the  Amazon  tributaries  are  already  as  busy  as  ever  fulfilling  the  requirements  of  the 
rubber  shippers  in  this  vast  region.  The  exports  of  rubber  now  amount  annually  to 
thousands  of  tons,  valued  at  upward  of  five  million  dollars,  nearly  all  of  which  passes 
through  the  ports  of  Mollendo  and  Iquitos,  the  latter  the  capital  of  the  great  rubber- 
producing  territory  of  Loreto. 


SCENE  ON   THE   MADRE  DE   DIOS   RIVER  NEAR    MALDONADO. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 


IQUITOS,  THE    CHIEF    PERUVIAN    PORT    OF    THE    AMAZON 


A' 


HOSPITALITY  IN  THE   RUBBER   COUNTRY. 


LL  the  commerce  of  the  Department  of 
Loreto  passes  through  its  capital,  Iquitos, 
which  is  the  chief  port  of  tlie  Amazon  in 
Peru,  and  is  one  of  the  important  rubber- 
exporting  centres  of  the  world,  it  is  a  city 
of  about  twenty-five  tiiousand  inhabitants, 
and  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  great 
river,  over  two  thousand  miles  from  its  mouth 
and  a  few  leagues  below  the  confluence  of 
the  Maraiion  with  the  Ucayali.  Iquitos  over- 
looks a  broad  expanse  of  water,  more  like  an 
inland  sea  than  a  stream,  the  channel  at  this 
point  being  nearly  three  miles  wide;  in  front 
of  the  city  lies  a  large  island.  The  depth  of  the  river  makes  it  possible  for  ocean  steamers 
to  anchor  in  the  port,  which  has  an  average  of  twenty-five  feet  of  water,  and,  in  summer, 
when  the  rainy  season  is  at  its  height,  has  twice  that  depth. 

Not  only  does  all  the  commerce  of  Loreto  pass  through  Iquitos,  but  the  largest  share 
of  the  imports  and  exports  of  the  entire  region  of  the  upper  Amazon  is  distributed  from 
this  point.  Merchandise  for  the  rubber  camps  is  brought  up  the  Amazon  from  foreign  ports 
to  Iquitos  and  is  here  reshipped  on  smaller  river  steamers  to  the  various  interior  towns  along 
the  tributaries  of  the  upper  Amazon, — ports  of  the  Ucayali,  Huallaga,  Pastaza,  IVlorona,^rom 
which  they  are  again  reshipped  in  launches  and  canoes  to  towns  on  the  smaller  branches 
of  these  waterways.  Sometimes  the  river  boats  carry  enterprising  explorers,  gold  hunters, 
rubber  gatherers,  and  commercial  travellers  in  a  strangely  mixed  company,  with  usually 
but  one  idea  in  common — the  prospect  of  fulfilling  long-cherished  dreams.  Material  for 
adventure,  romance,  and  scholarship  is  mingled  in  the  characters  that  one  sees  on  such  a 
trip,  conversation  on  board  bringing  out  the  most  unexpected  revelations. 

417 


4i8 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


THE   BOOTH    PIER,  IQUITOS. 


Several  steamship  lines  make  regular  trips  between  Iquitos  and  European  and  North 
American  ports.  The  Booth  Steamship  Company  has  been  engaged  in  this  trade  for  some 
years,  and  has  a  line  of  commodious  steamers  for  carrying  passengers  and  cargo.  Bi-monthly 
trips  are  made  from  England,  returning  by  way  of  the  United  States,  and  vice  versa,  calling 
at  Para  and  Manaos  en  route.  This  company  recently  built  its  own  docks  at  Iquitos,  and 
other  improvements  are  under  consideration  which  will  greatly  benefit  the  interests  of 
trade  in  this  port.  The  Red  Cross  Line  has  monthly  steamers  to  Iquitos;  and  a  number 
of  Peruvian  merchants  have  smaller  fleets  on  the  rivers  from  Iquitos  to  the  interior.  The 
Liberal,  a  trim  little  steamer  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  tons,  with  a  speed  of  ten  miles  an  hour, 
is  one  of  the  best  of  these  river  boats;  it  is  of  modern  construction,  is  lighted  by  electricity 
and  is  provided  with  excellent  accommodations  for  a  limited  number  of  passengers. 

Iquitos  is  quite  cosmopolitan,  its  population  including  representatives  of  many  nations; 
North  American  and  European  importers  have  branch  houses  here,  and  the  growing 
prosperity  of  the  city  has  attracted  enterprising  merchants  from  other  parts  of  Peru  and 
from  neighboring  republics.  The  climate  is  healthful  and  not  so  oppressive  as  one  might 
suppose,  considering  the  locality,  less  than  four  degrees  south  of  the  equator  and  only  a 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river.  It  represents  the  aspect  of  a  growing 
commercial  centre  with  its  new  wharves,  warehouses  and  modern  buildings  that  are  rapidly 
replacing  the  straw-thatched  cottages  and  comfortless  cho{as,  or  huts,  which  were  features 
of  the  town  a  dozen  years  ago.  Brick  and  iron  are  now  largely  used  in  the  construction  of 
buildings,  the  roofs  being  of  zinc  or  tiles.  The  government  house,  the  municipal  chambers, 
churches,  hospital,  and  other  public  edifices,  reflect  the  spirit  of  progress  which  is  beginning 


IQUITOS,  THE  CHIEF  PEHUyiAN  PORT  OF  THE  AMAZON  419 


ONE  OF   THE   PRINCIPAL  STREETS  OF   IQUITOS. 


to  animate  the  people.  A  flourishing  Chamber  of  Commerce  gives  further  evidence  of  local 
enterprise.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  thick  bosques,  or  woods,  in  which  every  variety  of 
vegetation  abounds,  and  tropical  foliage  is  riotous  in  color  and  luxuriance.  The  frequent  and 
heavy  rains  of  the  summer  season  keep  the  verdure  fresh  and  beautiful,  though  it  is  a  wel- 
come relief  to  the 
inhabitants  when 
winter  comes  and 
with  it  a  lessening 
of  the  heavy  rain- 
fall. In  reality, 
very  little  change 
may  be  noted  in 
the  thermometer, 
which  averages 
from  eighty-five 
to  ninety  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  all  the 
year  round. 

The  develop- 
ment of  commer- 
cial traffic  through 
the  port  of  Iquitos 


CALLE   DE  MORONA.  IQUITOS. 


420 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE^V  PERU 


may  be  judged  by  a  comparison  of  the  trade  of  1907  with  that  of  preceding  years,  the  total 
duties  on  exports  and  imports  of  last  year  amounting  to  nearly  three  hundred  thousand 
pounds  sterling,  while  those  of  the  previous  year  reached  less  than  two  hundred  thou- 
sand pounds  sterling,  and  in  189^  the  custom  house  receipts  of  this  port  did  not  exceed  one 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  pounds  sterling.  This  rapid  growth  of  trade  signifies  that  the 
region  of  the  Montafia,  particularly  the  Department  of  Loreto,  has  been  developing  resources 
heretofore  unexploited ;  and,  when  the  further  possibilities  of  industrial  activity  in  this  part 
of  Peru  are  considered,  the  prospect  for  its  future  wealth  appears  very  bright. 


RlVbR   SCENE   NEAR   IQUITOS. 


The  Department  of  Loreto  includes  the  provinces  of  Alto  Amazonas,  Bajo  Amazonas, 
and  Ucayali.  At  the  time  of  the  Independence,  all  this  vast  territory  belonged  to  the 
Intendencia  of  Trujillo,  and  was  known  as  the  province  of  Mainas;  it  was  made  a  province 
of  the  Department  of  La  Libertad,  and,  later,  of  Amazonas,  until,  in  18^^,  the  Littoral 
Province  of  Loreto  was  formed,  with  the  city  of  Moyobamba  as  its  capital.  A  few  years 
afterward.  President  Castilla  raised  the  province  to  the  dignity  of  a  maritime  military 
department,  with  jurisdiction  over  all  the  Amazon  region  bordering  on  the  neighboring 
republics.  At  that  time  the  department  consisted  of  the  provinces  of  Moyobamba,  Hual- 
laga,  Alto  and  Bajo  Amazonas;  Huallaga  was  divided  later  to  form  the  province  of  San 
Martin,  from  which  the  present  province  of  Ucayali  was  separated  a  few  years  ago.  The 
creation  of  the  new  Department  of  San  Martin  in  190^  took  from  Loreto  the  provinces  of 


IQUITOS,  THE  CHIEF  PERUI^MN  PORT  OF  THE  AMAZON  421 

Moyobamba,  Huallaga,  and  San  Martin,  though  this  still  remains  the  largest  political  division 
of  Peru,  covering  an  area  of  more  than  a  liundred  thousand  square  miles,  according  to 
Peruvian  claims. 

The  provinces  of  Loreto  are  completely  watered  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Amazon ;  the 
main  stream,  under  the  name  of  Marafion,  crosses  Alto  and  Bajo  Amazonas  through  a 
territory  of  the  greatest  fertility,  rich  in  rubber,  hardwoods,  and  tropical  fruits ;  and  along 
the  eastern  border  of  Ucayali  province,  the  river  of  the  same  name  flows  in  a  serpentine 
course  northward,  receiving  innumerable  small  streams  that  descend  the  western  slope  of 
the  central  Cordilleras.  The  popular  route  from  the  Pacific  Coast  to  the  forests  of  Loreto 
is  by  the  Ucayali  River  to  its  confluence  with  the  Maranon,  and  thence  along  the  great 
waterway  down  to   Iquitos;   though  a  very  interesting  journey  may  be   made   by  the 


A  VIEW   OF   IQUITOS  FROM  THE   RIVER. 


northern  route,  through  Cajamarca,  Chachapoyas  and  Moyobamba  to  the  port  of  Yuri- 
maguas  on  the  Huallaga  River.  Along  both  routes  the  luxuriance  of  the  Montafia  is  seen 
in  all  its  glory;  the  forest  is  aglow  with  the  brilliant  hues  of  a  thousand  birds  and 
butterflies ;  the  trees  are  alive  with  chattering  monkeys  that  swing  back  and  forth  by  the 
long  parasitic  vines  which  hang  like  ropes  from  the  highest  branches.  In  the  heart  of 
the  Montafia  the  trees  become  larger,  the  palms  and  ferns  of  denser  growth,  and  the 
creeping  vines  form  a  network  about  the  overarching  boughs.  Plantations  of  cacao, 
plantains,  yucca,  and  other  products  appear  from  time  to  time  as  a  clear  space  separates 
the  wooded  tracts;  and,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  great  rivers,  the  jebe  and  caucho 
gatherers  may  be  seen  working  their  way  through  the  estradas,  or  journeying  to  some 
point  on  the  river  to  take  a  boat  down  to  Iquitos,  the  metropolis  of  the  rubber  country. 
The  sentiment  of  hospitality  prevails  everywhere,  and  a  traveller  is  usually  treated  with 
the  greatest  kindness  when  he  arrives  at  a  settlement  in  the  Amazon  forest,  whatever 


422 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


his  business  or  nationality.    The  men  whose  tasks  l<eep  tliem  buried  for  years  in  the 
heart  of  the  rubber  country  are  always  glad  to  have  news  from  the  outside  world. 

In  the  development  of  trade  on  the  Amazon,  the  port  of  Iquitos  has  been  placed  in 
direct  communication  with  the  head  of  navigation  on  all  the  large  tributaries  of  the  great 
river,  and  explorations  have  been  made  far  up  the  smaller  streams  toward  their  source  in 
the  Cordilleras.  The  expeditions  sent  out  by  the  Peruvian  government  with  this  object 
in  view  have  added  many  interesting  contributions  to  the  knowledge  already  existing  in 
reference  to  the  resources  and  wealth  of  Loreto  and  the  promising  future  of  its 
chief  port. 


THE  CUSTOM   HOUSE  AT  IQUITOS. 


A  ROAD   THROUGH   THE   VIRGIN   FOREST   TO   PUERTO   BERMUDEZ. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 


NAVIGATION   AND   EXPLORATION   ON   THE   AMAZON   WATERWAYS 


L' 


ARGE  steamers  ascend  the  Amazon  for 
three  thousand  miles,  passing  the  boun- 
dary line  between  Brazil  and  Peru  at  the  port 
of  Tabatinga  and  continuing  beyond  Iquitos 
for  hundreds  of  miles  up  the  Marafion  and  the 
Ucayali,  Huallaga,  or  other  tributaries.  Yurima- 
guas,  which  is  the  most  important  port  on  the 
Huallaga,  five  hundred  miles  above  Iquitos,  is 
connected  with  the  latter  by  a  regular  service 
of  steamers  of  four  hundred  tons,  nearly  all 
the  trade  of  the  Departments  of  San  Martin 
and  Amazonas  passing  over  this  route.  On 
the  Ucayali  are  the  commercial  ports  of  Con- 
tamina  and  Masisea,  the  latter  noted  as  the 
first  station  in  the  Montafia  of  the  wireless 
telegraph  system  that  connects  Puerto  Ber- 
mudez  with  the  port  of  Iquitos.  Steamers  of 
four  hundred  tons  ply  between  Iquitos  and 
Contamina,  seven  hundred  miles  up  the  river; 
and,  during  the  rainy  season  when  the  water- 
ways are  deeper  than  at  other  times,  they 
ascend  as  far  as  Masisea,  two  hundred  miles  beyond  Contamina.  From  Masisea,  steam 
launches  convey  passengers  and  cargo  up  the  Pachitea  for  two  hundred  miles  to  the 
Pichis — which  unites  with  the  Palcazu  to  form  the  Pachitea — and  along  the  Pichis  for  about 
a  hundred  miles  to  the  port  of  Bermudez,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  this  branch  of  the 
Ucayali  and  the  point  of  embarkation  for  travellers  between  Lima  and  Iquitos  over  what  is 
known  as  the  Central  Route. 

42J 


AN   ENGINEERS'  CAMP  AT   PUERTO  BERMUDEZ   ON 
THE   PICHIS   RIVER. 


426  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEM^  PERU 

The  length  of  time  required  to  make  the  journey  between  Lima  and  Iquitos  varies 
greatly  according  to  the  season  and  the  condition  of  the  rivers,  the  voyages  up  the  water 
courses  taking  much  longer  than  the  descent.  Tlie  trip  may  be  made,  under  favorable 
circumstances,  in  fifteen  or  sixteen  days.  An  interesting  description  of  this  trip,  given  in  a 
recent  report  of  one  of  the  Peruvian  government  engineers,  shows  the  kind  of  travelling 
one  experiences  in  the  Montafia  and  affords  valuable  information  as  to  the  equipment 
necessary  for  such  a  journey.  As  the  route  lies  first  across  the  Cordilleras,  and  the  railway 
takes  one  only  from  Lima  to  Oroya,  where  it  is  necessary  to  take  mules  for  the  ride  across 
the  puna  and  down  the  eastern  slope  to  the  river,  passengers  are  advised  not  to  carry  bulky 
luggage,  about  a  hundred  pounds  being  the  heaviest  that  any  single  piece  should  weigh ; 
the  same  rule  applies  in  all  mountainous  regions  where  the  path  is  narrow  and  pack-mules 
are  the  freight  carriers.  It  is  also  recommended  that  trunks,  bags,  and  everything  holding 
perishable  effects,  be  wrapped  in  waterproof  material,  as  rain  falls  daily  and  in  a  deluge 
throughout  the  region  of  the  lower  Montana. 

But,  if  the  traveller  goes  well  equipped  and  prepared  to  make  the  best  of  an  experience 
that  has  its  agreeable  features  as  well  as  its  discomforts,  the  journey  is  likely  to  prove  most 
interesting.  One  should  be  provided  with  an  army  cot,  a  mosqiiitero,  or  netting,  as  a  pro- 
tection from  the  prevailing  pest  of  some  sections  of  the  river  course,  a  waterproof  coat  and 
cap,  and  a  small  medicine  case  containing  quinine,  antiseptics,  and  ammonia.  This  precaution 
is  advised  as  a  general  rule,  and  it  does  not  mean  that  medicine  is  sure  to  be  needed,  nor 
that  mosquitoes  will  torment  the  passenger  throughout  the  entire  journey.  As  has  been 
said  elsewhere,  the  railway  trip  from  Lima  to  Oroya  may  be  made  in  a  day.  After  spending 
a  night  at  Oroya,  the  traveller  proceeds  on  muleback  to  Tarma,  about  twenty  miles  away, 
over  a  road  that  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  Andean  highways;  the  sturdy  mules  bred  in 
these  altitudes  are  the  only  safe  animals  for  such  a  journey,  which  is  a  succession  of  steep 
ascents  and  narrow  curves  until  the  highest  point  is  reached,  after  which  the  downward 
road  begins,  as  hazardous  and  uncomfortable  as  the  other.  As  the  railway  is  nearly  finished 
between  Oroya  and  Tarma,  this  part  of  the  trip  will  soon  be  made  under  less  trying  condi- 
tions. At  present,  it  requires  five  or  six  hours  to  cover  these  twenty  miles.  From  Tarma 
to  the  Pichis  River,  the  road  is  less  difficult,  and,  after  passing  Huacapistana,  twenty-five 
miles  northeast  of  Tarma,  the  region  of  the  Montana  is  soon  reached,  the  traveller  being  then 
obliged  to  discard  the  heavy  wraps  required  during  the  ride  across  the  high  sierras,  and  to 
put  on  summer  clothing. 

The  third  day's  ride  brings  one  to  La  Merced,  on  the  banks  of  the  Chanchamayo  River. 
This  part  of  the  journey  is  made  over  a  fairly  good  road,  the  distance  from  Huacapistana  to 
La  Merced,  about  twenty  miles,  being  covered  easily  in  five  hours.  Puentes  colgantes,  or 
suspension  bridges,  cross  the  Tarma  and  other  rivers  of  this  region,  the  route  to  La  Merced 
crossing  at  least  half  a  dozen  6f  these  primitive-looking,  but  generally  serviceable,  structures. 
La  Merced  is  situated  at  an  altitude  of  about  three  thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  and  belongs 
to  what  may  be  called  the  upper  Montafia,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  region  of  the  plains,  or 


N/iyiGATION  AND  EXPLORATION  ON  AMAZON  (VATERIVAYS     427 

theMower  Montafia.    The  road  from  La  Merced  to  Yapaz,  a  distance  of  tliirty  miles,  may 
be  travelled  in  one  day,  though  many  prefer  to  stop  midway,  at  Pueblo  Pardo,  to  break  the 


THE  CONFLUENCE   OF   THE  CHUCHURAL  AND   PALCAZU   RIVERS. 

journey,  which  is  more  fatiguing  as  the  rains  become  heavier,  soaking  the  ground  and 
making  progress  difficult.  But  one  learns  to  take  life  very  leisurely  in  the  tropics,  and  it  is 
pleasanter  to  jog  along  for  a  few  hours,  enjoying  the  charm  of  the  forest  with  its  impressive 
silence,  and  resting  when  so  inclined,  than  to  make  an  extra  effort  to  accomplish  in  one  day 
what  may  be  done  just  as  well  in  two.  If  " Poor  Richard"  had  lived  in  the  Chanchamayo 
valley,  he  would  probably  have  reversed  his  advice  to  read :  "  Never  do  to-day  what  you 
can  put  off  till  to-morrow."  A  short  distance  beyond  Pueblo  Pardo,  the  Camino  de  Pichis, 
as  the  road  to  the  river  is  called,  crosses  a  suspension  bridge  over  the  Paucartambo  River, 
built  by  the  English  colony  of  the  Perene,  whose  haciendas  may  be  seen  at  intervals 
between  Pueblo  Pardo  and  Yapaz. 

From  Yapaz  to  Enenas,  eighteen  miles,  is  another  day's  journey,  of  five  or  six  hours; 
from  Enenas  to  Porvenir,  twenty-seven  miles,  the  ride  is  so  fatiguing  and  difficult  that  it 
usually  requires  nine  or  ten  hours  to  cover  the  distance.  This  part  of  the  journey  leads  the 
traveller  through  the  heart  of  the  Montana ;  and  during  the  eighth  day's  ride,  which  takes 
one  from  Porvenir  to  San  Nicolas,  not  a  single  house  is  seen,  nor  any  sign  of  human 
habitation.  From  Yapaz  to  San  Nicolas,  the  climate  is  cool  and  pleasant,  but,  after  passing 
the  Azupizu  River  ten  miles  below,  the  heat  becomes  uncomfortable.  Two  days'  journey 
from  San  Nicolas  is  still  required  to  bring  one  to  the  river  Pichis,  which  is  reached  at  a  point 


428 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


called  Puerto  Yessup,  where  a  canoe  is  in  waiting  to  convey  passengers  to  Puerto  Bermudez. 
The  muleback  trip  need  not  take  more  tiian  ten  days  under  ordinary  circumstances.  Most 
of  the  tambos,  or  lodging  places,  along  the  route  from  Oroya  to  Puerto  Bermudez,  have  tele- 
phone connection  with  each  other ;  and  telegraphic  stations  are  established  at  Oroya,  Tarma, 
La  Merced,  Enenas,  Puerto  Bermudez  and  other  points.  The  railway  will  be  completed  to 
Puerto  Bermudez  within  a  short  time,  and  then  the  trip  overland  to  Iquitos  will  be  a  question 
of  days  instead  of  weeks,  as  at  present.  A  steamer  makes  the  voyage  from  Puerto  Bermudez 
to  the  port  of  Iquitos  in  five  or  six  days,  calling  at  Masisea  and  other  ports  en  route. 

The  northern  route  from  the  coast  to  Iquitos  has  two  starting  points,  and  reaches  the 
upper  Amazon  at  two  separate  ports.  The  route  most  generally  taken  is  that  from  Pacas- 
mayo,  via  Cajamarca,  Chachapoyas  and  Moyobamba  to  Yurimaguas;  though  the  new  railway 
will  extend  from  Paita  to  Puerto  Limon,  on  the  Marafion,  with  a  branch  to  Yurimaguas. 
Explorations  have  been  made  throughout  this  region,  and  reports  have  been  sent  to  the 
government  dealing  with  the  question  of  railway  building  and  road  making  in  this  part  of 
the  republic.  The  European  explorer  Zaham,  who  travelled  from  Lima  to  Iquitos  by  way 
of  Moyobamba  recently,  wrote  an  enthusiastic  letter  in  praise  of  this  region,  saying:  "  In  no 


'.,\    ..,).. 


^f^i^!^^^^^ 


PUERTO  CLEMENT. 


country  of  the  world  have  I  seen  a  more  fertile  land  or  a  more  suave  and  enchanting 
climate ;  nowhere  have  1  seen  such  a  variety  of  fruits,  nor  a  more  exuberant  vegetation ; 
wheat,  maize,  rice,  sugar-cane,  cacao,  coffee,  potatoes,  and  coca,  equal  to  the  products  found 


N/iyiGATION  AND  EXPLORATION  ON  AMAZON  PVATERIVAYS     429 

in  any  other  part  of  the  globe,  and  the  silkworm  flourishing,  as  I  have  seen  for  myself." 
The  same  writer  adds  that  the  only  need  of  this  region  is  good  roads  and  colonists.  The 
government  is  doing  all  in  its  power  to  secure  both  these  advantages. 


FORDING    THE    INAMBARI    RIVER. 


The  navigation  of  the  vast  river  system  of  the  Montana  is  a  question  that  bears  directly 
on  the  two  important  problems  of  transportation  and  immigration.  It  has  been  proved  in 
the  history  of  both  North  and  South  America  that  the  tide  of  immigration  is  ever  borne 
toward  the  sections  of  country  traversed  by  railways  or  reached  by  stearhers;  and  it  is 
important  that  means  of  transportation  should  be  guaranteed  to  colonists  before  they  estab- 
lish themselves  in  a  new  country.  With  this  object  in  view,  the  Peruvian  government  is 
employing  commissions  to  explore  and  examine  rivers  that  have  hitherto  been  known  only 
as  a  name,  and  the  results  are  most  satisfactory.  Voyages  of  discovery  have  been  made  up 
the  main  stream  and  branches  of  the  Yurua,  Puriis,  Putumayo,  Napo,  Tigre,  Morona,  Pastaza, 
and  others,  and  valuable  knowledge  has  been  gained  regarding  these  waterways.  Along  all 
the  rivers  of  the  Amazon  system  on  which  lines  of  steamers  and  small  craft  are  maintained, 
improvements  have  been  inaugurated  with  a  view  to  facilitating  transportation  so  that  more 
rapid  and  regular  service  may  be  secured.  Merchant  steamers,  engaged  in  the  rubber  trade, 
and  in  the  shipment  of  products  from  the  forests  of  northern  Cuzco  to  Iquitos  and  foreign 
ports,  can  ascend  the  main  stream  of  the  Ucayali  for  three  hundred  miles  above  the  mouth 
of  the  Pachitea,  and  beyond  the  confluence  of  its  great  tributaries,  the  Tambo  and  the 


4?o 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


Urubamba,  continuing  along  the  latter  river  for  another  hundred  miles  until  they  reach 
the  port  of  Mishagua,  in  the  Department  of  Cuzco.  A  line  of  railway  is  projected  from  the 
city  of  Cuzco  to  this  port,  in  accordance  with  the  general  plan  of  commercial  development 
which  the  Peruvian  government  has  adopted. 

The  port  of  Mishagua  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mishagua  River,  which,  with  its  tributary, 
the  Sarjali,  is  navigable  for  canoes  for  a  distance  of  more  than  two  hundred  miles,  to  what 
is  known  as  the  portage  of  Fitzcarrald,  a  narrow  isthmus  across  which  the  rubber  shippers 
have  made  a  path  through  the  forest  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Madre  de  Dios.  This  important 
affluent  of  the  Amazon's  mightiest  tributary,  the  Madeira,  has  its  rise  very  near  the  source 
of  the  Purus,  another  of  the  Amazon's  great  branches.  About  twenty  miles  from  its  source, 
the  Madre  de  Dios,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Manu,  is  navigable  for  steam  launches;  and. 
below  its  confluence  with  the  Pilcopata,  where  it  takes  the  name  of  the  Madre  de  Dios, 
merchant  steamers  of  five  liundred  tons  serve  the  purposes  of  transportation,  if  the 
channels  of  these  rivers  were  dredged  and  cleared  of  obstructions,  it  would  be  possible  to 
navigate  them  all  the  year  round,  in  the  dry  as  well  as  the  wet  season. 

Under  existing  conditions,  the  extent  of  the  Amazon  waterways  in  Peru  that  are 
navigable  all  the  year  round, — including  the  main  stream,  which  is  navigable  for  four 
hundred  miles  above  Tabatinga  for  vessels  drawing  twenty  feet  of  water, — is  estimated  at 
over  five  thousand  miles.  Of  this  mileage,  about  one-third  is  navigable  for  steamers 
drawing  from  four  to  eight  feet  of  water,  and  the  remainder  for  lighter  steamers,  not 
requiring  more  than  from  two  to  four  feet  of  depth  for  navigation.  At  high  water,  the  river 
transportation  facilities  cover  an  extent  of  ten  thousand  miles  for  steamers,  and  about  thirty 
thousand  miles  for  light  craft  such  as  canoes  and  rafts,  which  penetrate  the  immense 
forests  of  the  Montana  in  every  direction,  along  innumerable  streams  that  feed  the  mighty 
current  of  the  main  waterway  from  a  thousand  sources. 


TABATINGA,  ON   THE  FRONTIER   BETWEEN   PERU  AND  BRAZIL. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 


FOREIGN   INTERESTS   IN   PERU— IMMIGRATION   AND   COLONIZATION 


T^HE  amount  of  foreign  capital  invested  in 
*  Peru  runs  far  into  the  millions.  North 
Americans  have  led  in  the  successful  inaugu- 
ration of  large  foreign  enterprises,  though 
English,  German,  Italian,  and  other  European 
nations  are  represented  among  the  owners  of 
industrial  and  commercial  establishments  of 
increasing  importance.  During  the  year  1907, 
thirty  new  enterprises  were  initiated  by  Peru- 
vian and  foreign  syndicates  for  the  exploita- 
tion of  the  national  products,  two-thirds  of 
the  number  being  devoted  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  mining  and  rubber  interests  of 
the  country.  Several  existing  companies  aug- 
mented their  capital  and  enlarged  the  scope  of 
their  establishments,  looking  forward  to  an 
increase  in  their  business  as  a  consequence  of 
the  improving  of  facilities  for  transportation 
now  in  progress. 

The  most  important  British  interests  in 
Peru  are  in  the  hands  of  the  Peruvian  Cor- 
poration, which,  as  elsewhere  stated,  has  the 
control  of  the  principal  railways  and  of  a  large  share  of  the  guano  production  for  a  term 
of  years,  in  accordance  with  their  contract  with  the  Peruvian  government.  This  powerful 
syndicate  is  interested  also  in  colonization  in  Peru,  having  established  a  foreign  settlement 
on  the  banks  of  the  Perene  River,  in  the  valley  of  Chanchamayo,  where  the  corporation 
owns  three  million  acres  of  land,  ceded  to  it  by  the  Peruvian  government  for  the  purpose 

431 


COLONISTS   OF   THfc   sitKKA. 


4J2  THE  OLD  /IND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

of  colonization.  The  Perene  colony  was  founded  in  1892,  a  hundred  Italian  immigrants 
being  brought  over  under  contract  to  clear  the  land  and  cultivate  it,  to  build  roads,  put  up 
necessary  dwellings,  and  establish  their  homes  there.  They  were,  at  first,  maintained  at  the 
cost  of  the  Peruvian  Corporation  and  received  wages  for  their  labor,  being  at  no  expense  for 
utensils,  materials,  etc.,  which  were  supplied  by  the  company.  But  as  this  support  was 
gradually  withdrawn,  the  colonists  became  dissatisfied  and  many  of  them  abandoned  the 
settlement;  so  that,  five  years  later  not  more  than  half  a  dozen  of  the  original  hundred 
remained.  The  colony  has  since  grown  and  flourished,  however,  its  coffee  plantations  now 
extending  over  a  large  area  and  yielding  a  valuable  harvest  annually.  Besides  coffee,  the 
colonists  of  the  Perene  also  cultivate  sugar,  cocoa,  and  other  products  of  the  Montafia. 

German  interests  in  Peru  are  almost  entirely  of  a  commercial  character,  though  German 
colonists  have  taken  up  land  in  the  Chanchamayo  and  other  valleys  of  the  interior,  and  are 
engaged  in  agriculture.  The  first  German  colony  in  Peru  was  founded  in  18^8,  at  Pozuzo, 
near  Puerto  Mairo;  in  the  department  of  Huanuco,  on  a  branch  of  the  Pachitea  River,  it 
now  numbers  about  a  thousand,  many  of  the  original  immigrants  having  separated  from 
the  parent  colony  in  1891,  to  form  a  new  settlement  at  Oxapampa,  in  the  Department  of 
Junin,  midway  between  Pozuzo  and  Cerro  de  Pasco.  Both  the  Pozuzo  and  Oxapampa 
colonies  have  grown,  and  the  latter  has  become  very  prosperous.  "Oxapampa"  means 
"a  plain  covered  with  pastures,"  and  the  name  is  well  applied  to  this  district,  on  which  the 
flocks  and  herds  of  the  colonists  increase  rapidly  and  thrive  with  moderate  care.  The 
people  of  Oxapampa  cultivate  everything  that  they  require,  and  are  able  to  provide  them- 
selves with  food,  clothing,  and  shelter  from  the  products  of  their  forests,  pastures,  and 
plantations.  The  settlement  is  located  on  the  margin  of  a  river,  a  branch  of  the  Choro- 
bamba,  which  feeds  one  of  the  numerous  tributaries  of  the  Pachitea.  Situated  on  the 
lowest  slope  of  the  oriental  chain  of  the  Cordilleras,  where  the  region  of  the  forest  begins, 
its  resources  include  those  of  both  the  semi-tropical  and  the  tropical  zones.  Sugar,  tobacco, 
yucca,  and  plantains  grow  on  its  plantations.  The  colonists'  houses  are  built  of  wood,  and 
the  sharp  spikes  of  a  native  palm,  the  Batrix  ciliata,  are  used  as  nails  for  fastening  the 
boards  together.  Some  of  the  haciendas  of  the  colony  have  established  sugar  mills  and 
manufacture  agnardente,  literally  "fire-water."  Others  supply  Cerro  de  Pasco  and  neigh- 
boring towns  with  butter  and  lard.  Cigars  of  a  good  quality  are  made  in  the  colony.  The 
most  urgent  need  of  these  people  seems  to  be  a  better  opportunity  for  education  and  more 
facilities  for  travelling. 

The  Italians  have  been  very  successful  colonists  in  all  parts  of  South  America.  In 
Brazil  and  Argentina  they  have  become  an  important  factor  in  the  development  of  industry 
and  commerce,  and  in  Peru  they  have  established  successful  enterprises  of  various  kinds. 
Formerly  the  great  tide  of  Italian  emigration  was  toward  the  United  States,  but  of  recent 
years  Italians  have  been  finding  their  way  to  Brazil,  Argentina,  and  other  Latin-American 
countries  in  increasing  numbers.  Peru  has  been  too  remote  from  the  transatlantic  ports  to 
secure  a  large  proportion  of  the  immigration  to  South  America,  and  its  foreign  population 


FOREIGN  INTERESTS  IN  PERU 


43  J 


does  not  approach  that  of  the  republics  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard ;  neither  has  Peru  sought 
to  introduce  great  throngs  of  immigrants  without  considering  their  desirability  as  citizens; 


IN  THE   HEART  OF  THE   MINING   REGION. 


the  result  is  that  those  who  have  come  to  the  country  are  thrifty  and  industrious,  a  real 
acquisition  to  the  industrial  population.  The  last  census,  taken  in  1900,  places  the  number 
of  Italian  residents  in  Peru  at  ten  thousand,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  census  now  in  prepa- 
ration will  show  a  notable  increase,  as  the  Department  of  Lima  alone  has  more  than  five 
thousand  Italians  among  its  residents. 

The  Italians  have  shown  both  initiative  and  energy  in  their  various  enterprises  in 
the  republic.  They  are  identified  with  some  of  the  most  important  improvements  made 
in  the  capital  and  in  Callao,  besides  which  they  have  established  large  factories  in 
several  cities,  in  the  southern  coast  region,  the  Italians  are  the  chief  owners  of  the 
olive  groves  and  other  fruit  orchards.  In  the  city  of  Lima  their  bank  and  insurance 
company  are  important  institutions  of  credit.  The  capital  owned  by  Italians  and  em- 
ployed in  industrial  and  commercial  enterprises  in  Peru  is  estimated  at  about  thirty  million 
dollars,  gold. 


434 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


The  Department  of  Loreto  is  a  promising  territory  for  colonization.  As  it  lies  entirely 
within  the  region  of  the  Montana  and  directly  over  the  equator,  it  is  generally  supposed  to 
be  a  land  of  fevers  and  other  tropical  diseases ;  but  Colonel  Palacios  Mendiburu,  who  has 
travelled  throughout  this  part  of  the  republic  and  has  spent  much  time  in  studying  its 
conditions,  says  there  are  three  points,  "  and  only  three,"  in  the  entire  Department  of  Loreto 
in  which  malarial  fever,  known  as  paludismo,  is  prevalent.  These  malarial  districts  are :  San 
Antonio,  on  the  Maranon ;  between  the  mouth  of  the  Pastaza  and  that  of  the  Cahuapanas ; 
and  along  the  Yavary  and  the  Tigre  Rivers.  The  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  intensity 
of  the  heat  have  a  debilitating  effect  in  the  lower  plains,  and  anemia  frequently  attacks 
the  over-energetic  and  those  addicted  to  alcoholic  stimulants.  But  the  tales  of  terrible 
diseases,  attacks  from  cobras  and  boa-constrictors,  as  well  as  other  sensational  experiences 
reported  to  be  everyday  occurrences  in  the  Montafia,  are  woven  chiefly  of  the  fabric  of 

fancy.  Colonel  Palacios 
says  that  the  serpents 
and  other  poisonous 
creatures  of  the  forest 
flee  from  man;  though 
he  explains  that  it  is  ad- 
visable to  travel  always 
with  one  or  more  com- 
panions, as  a  person 
alone  is  likely  to  meet 
with  disagreeable  en- 
counters in  the  bosque, 
where  jaguars  abound. 
The  natives  of  the  forest 
fmd  abundant  game  in 
this  region;  a  successful 
hunter  will  bring  home 
a  variety  of  meats,  the 
monkey  providing  a  fa- 
vorite dish.  Fish  are 
found  in  all  the  rivers, 
and  turtles  are  abundant 
in  many  localities.  For 
a  more  vegetarian  diet, 
the  Montafia  supplies 
plenty  of  cocoa,  the  tree 
of  which  grows  wild  here ;  and  the  bread-tree,  the  papaya,  the  pineapple  and  other  tropical 
fruits  are  found  everywhere.    Cotton  grows  wild,  totally  neglected  in  this  remote  region. 


A  FOREIGN  COLONY  IN   THE   RUBBER   COUNTRY. 


FOREIGN  INTERESTS  IN  PERU 


4i$ 


According  to  the  recent  land  law,  especially  designed  to  cover  the  region  of  the  Montana, 
presented  to  the  senate  by  the  representatives  of  Loreto  in  1907,  the  state  lands  of  this 


A  FKRTILE    VALLEY   FOR   COLONIZATION   IN  THE  APURIMAC  REGION. 


territory  may  be  ceded  to  individuals  for  exploitation  and  profit  by  sale,  denouncement, 
adjudication,  or  contract.  When  ceded  by  sale,  the  price  is  five  sols  per  hectare  (two  and 
a  half  acres),  in  consideration  of  which  the  purchaser  acquires  perpetual  and  irrevocable 
possession  of  the  lands,  the  proprietorship  of  the  trees  found  thereon,  etc.  Not  more  than 
five  hundred  hectares  can  be  sold  to  the  same  person  without  legislative  authorization.  If, 
after  ten  years,  the  purchaser  has  not  at  least  one-tenth  of  his  land  under  exploitation,  it 
becomes  again  the  property  of  the  state;  but  if,  in  addition  to  satisfying  this  obligation,  the 
owner  has  planted  rubber  trees,  he  receives  a  premium  from  the  government. 

By  denouncement,  lands  in  the  Montafia  may  be  acquired  as  concessions  from  the 
government,  not  to  exceed  a  thousand  pertenencias,  the  pertenencLi  for  this  class  of  property 
being  a  hundred  hectares  (two  hundred  and  fifty  acres).  In  case  a  concession  of  more  than 
a  thousand  acres  is  asked,  the  granting  of  it  depends  on  Congress.  As  elsewhere  stated, 
a  half-yearly  tax  of  two  sols  and  fifty  centavos  (one  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents,  gold)  is 
levied  on  each  pertenencia. 

The  government  may  concede  lands  by  adjudication  gratuitously,  up  to  five  hectares  for 
each  person,  with  the  obligation  to  cultivate,  within  three  years,  at  least  the  fifth  part  of  the 
land  granted.  Failing  to  fulfil  this  demand,  the  colonist  loses  his  claim.  The  concession 
of  lands  in  the  Montana  may  be  made  by  the  government  in  the  interests  of  public  works, 


4j6 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


such  as  road-building,  etc.,  or  for  purposes  of  colonization  on  a  large  scale,  as  has  been 
done  in  the  case  of  the  Inca  Mining  Company  and  other  enterprises.  The  funds  arising 
from  the  taxes  on  adjudicated  lands  are  employed  in  the  improvement  of  highways  and  in 
the  payment  of  premiums  to  the  cultivators  of  rubber  trees. 

The  government  desires  to  bring  into  the  country  a  good  class  of  foreign  labor,  and 
facilities  are  granted  to  colonists  who  come  of  their  own  accord  to  settle  here,  especially 
to  those  who  establish  themselves  in  the  Chanchamayo  valley  and  otlier  regions  of  the 
Montana.  Two  hectares  of  land  are  granted  free  to  each  person,  and  his  passage  is  paid 
from  the  port  of  Callao  to  Oroya  by  railway,  and  beyond  that  point  to  his  destination  by 
muleback;  a  monthly  subsidy  is  also  granted  for  a  year,  consisting  of  three  pounds  sterling 
to  each  family,  and  one  pound  to  each  individual  without  a  family,  the  first  quarterly 
allowance  being  paid  in  advance. 

It  is  recognized  by  all  tlie  countries  of  America  that  only  by  increasing  their  population 
through  immigration  can  their  territories  be  developed  and  made  to  yield  the  riches  which  a 
beneficent  creator  meant  they  should.  As  the  Argentine  statesman  Alberdi  wrote,  more 
than  half  a  century  ago:  "To  populate  is  to  civilize.  Bring  immigrants  to  make  of  them 
good  Argentinos. — Bring  colonists,  not  to  be  exploited  by  the  capitalist  class,  but  that  they 
may  here  set  up  their  domestic  hearth,  and  live  among  us  as  one  of  ourselves.  The  laws 
should  amply  favor  these  new  brethren  of  ours  who  come  to  earn  their  living  by  the  sweat 
of  their  brows,  and  they  should  have  ample  liberty,  if  they  wish  to  fix  their  permanent 
residence  in  the  country  and  to  contribute  to  the  development  of  the  nation." 


AN  INGENIOUS   PROSPECTOR'S  HOUSE  IN  THE   FOREST. 


< 

-J 
-I 


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O 
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CHAPTER  XXXV 


FINANCIAL   AND   COMMERCIAL   PROGRESS— MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES 


P  EW  countries  have  been  visited  by  such 
^  great  extremes  of  fortune  as  Peru, 
at  one  time  reckoned  among  tlie  richest  in 
the  world  and  at  another  accounted  so  poor 
as  to  be  bordering  on  bankruptcy.  The 
history  of  Peruvian  finances  is  a  record  of 
alternate  prodigality  and  economy,  of  expen- 
sive experiments,  abounding  resourceful- 
ness, and,  through  all  its  phases,  of  unlimited 
faith  and  resolute  optimism.  When,  with 
the  proclamation  of  independence,  Peru 
threw  off  the  yoke  of  Spain,  its  revenues 
did  not  exceed  two  million  dollars.  \n  order 
to  maintain  the  struggle  it  was  necessary  to 
raise  a  loan,  especially  as  a  large  share  of 
the  national  income  was  still  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  royalists.  This  loan,  which  was 
made  in  London  in  1822  for  the  sum  of  one 
million  two  hundred  thousand  pounds  ster- 
ling at  six  per  cent  interest  (three  years' 
interest  was  deducted  from  the  principal,  of  which  only  a  part  was  handed  over  in  cash, 
the  rest  being  delivered  in  weapons  and  ammunition  of  war),  was  supplemented  three  years 
later  by  a  second  loan  for  a  smaller  amount  at  the  same  rate  of  interest.  Added  to  this  debt 
were  large  sums  in  recognition  of  the  assistance  rendered  by  Chile  and  Colombia  in  the 
war  of  Independence,  all  of  which  contributed  to  bring  the  foreign  debt  of  Peru  up  to  about 
four  million  pounds  sterling  at  the  very  outset  of  the  national  career  as  a  republic.  The  total 
value  of  the  exports  at  that  time  did  not  amount  to  two  million  pounds  sterling,  and  the 

4?9 


AN   INDIAN   WEAVING   THE   PONCHO. 


440  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEH^  PERU 

custom  house  receipts  were  less  than  two  hundred  thousand  pounds  sterling,  the  remainder 
of  the  revenue  being  chiefly  derived  from  a  contribution  levied  in  place  of  the  tax  which 
Spain  had  imposed  on  the  Indians. 

Within  fifteen  years  after  the  inauguration  of  the  republic,  the  custom  house  receipts 
had  more  than  doubled,  and  a  few  years  later  the  production  of  guano  began  to  yield  such 
enormous  returns  that  the  country  appeared  to  be  once  more  prepared  to  hold  its  own 
among  the  most  prosperous  nations  of  the  world,  in  18^0,  the  loans  of  1822  and  1825 
were  cancelled  by  means  of  a  new  loan  in  London  for  three  million  eight  hundred  thousand 
pounds  sterling,  and  in  the  same  year  the  internal  debt  was  consolidated  in  bonds  bearing 
three  per  cent  interest,  to  the  amount  of  a  million  pounds  sterling.  Including  the  debt  to 
Chile  and  the  floating  debt,  Peru  then  owed  only  about  six  million  pounds  sterling,  while 
the  revenue  from  guano  alone  was  a  million  pounds  sterling  a  year.  But,  as  has  been 
shown  elsewhere,  the  rapid  acquisition  of  wealth  from  the  guano  trade  brought  with  it  the 
temptation  to  reckless  expenditure,  to  which  the  unsettled  politics  of  the  country  contributed 
in  great  measure.  The  internal  debt  increased  four  million  pounds  sterling  in  five  years, 
and  each  succeeding  estimate  of  the  budget  sliowed  heavier  expenditures  for  the  govern- 
ment service.  At  the  same  time,  many  improvements  were  inaugurated  which  necessitated 
the  outlay  of  large  sums. 

During  General  Castilla's  administration,  the  Peruvian  monetary  system, — which  had 
become  demoralized  after  the  Peru-Bolivian  Confederation  by  the  circulation,  at  par,  of 
Bolivian  silver  money  of  a  lower  standard  than  the  national  currency, — was  reformed 
through  the  conversion  of  all  inferior  Bolivian  coins  in  exchange  for  those  of  Peru,  up  to 
the  amount  of  ten  million  dollars  and  the  prohibition  of  any  future  use  of  the  depreciated 
coin.  The  new  law  established  the  decimal  system  and  the  double  standard  of  gold  and 
silver,  the  silver  sol,  worth  a  dollar,  being  recognized  as  the  monetary  unit;  though  the  gold 
coinage  of  that  period  lasted  only  a  few  years,  being  abolished  in  a  later  administration.  In 
order  to  carry  out  the  currency  reform,  and  to  consolidate  the  foreign  debt,  Peru  borrowed, 
in  1862,  in  London,  five  and  a  half  million  pounds  sterling,  at  four  and  a  half  per  cent 
interest  and  eight  per  cent  yearly  amortization,  the  loan  being  issued  at  ninety-three  per 
cent.  All  the  government  revenues  and  also  the  receipts  from  guano  sales  in  England  and 
Belgium  were  pledged  as  a  guarantee  of  this  loan.  The  seizure  of  the  Chincha  Islands  by 
Spanish  men-of-war  in  1864  made  it  obligatory  for  Peru  to  build  a  navy  strong  enough  to 
drive  back  the  invaders,  and,  with  this  object  in  view,  a  new  loan  of  ten  million  pounds 
sterling  was  made  in  London.  The  ironclads  Hiiasair  and  Indept'iuh'tuia  were  built  with 
the  proceeds,  part  of  which  were  further  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  railway  from 
Mollendo  to  Arequipa. 

A  few  far-seeing  statesmen  early  recognized  the  necessity  for  establishing  a  more 
satisfactory  economic  regime  than  that  which  governed  Peru  at  this  time,  and,  during  the 
administration  of  the  Dictator  Prado,  his  Finance  Minister,  Don  Manuel  Pardo,  inaugurated 
a  new  fiscal  system.    By  means  of  taxation  on  certain  luxuries  and  the  levying  of  an  export 


FINANCIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  PROGRESS— INDUSTRIES  441 

duty  of  three  per  cent  on  the  chief  national  products,  the  government  receipts  were  con- 
siderably increased,  and  it  was  hoped  that,  as  the  system  developed,  it  would  create  an 
important  revenue  aside  from  that  produced  by  guano,  wliich,  it  was  realized,  was  an  uncer- 
tain quantity  and  mortgaged  almost  to  the  limit  of  its  financial  value.  Unfortunately,  the 
succeeding  administration  did  not  pursue  the  same  policy,  and  new  loans  were  made,  which 
brought  the  foreign  debt  up  to  thirty-three  million  pounds  sterling,  the  government  being 
obliged  to  pay  for  the  use  of  this  loan  two  million  seven  hundred  thousand  pounds  sterling 
annually.  The  entire  yearly  revenue  from  guano  was  not  more  than  two  million  pounds 
sterling,  and  the  national  credit  went  down  under  the  strain  of  the  tremendous  obligations 
imposed  on  it. 

When  President  Manuel  Pardo  was  called  to  the  chief  executive  office  in  1872,  he  made 
a  heroic  effort  to  improve  the  financial  condition,  which  was  one  of  internal  as  well  as 
external  disorder.  The  budget  of  1873  for  ordinary  expenses  had  been  raised  to  nearly 
twenty-two  million  sols  (at  forty  pence),  and  a  heavy  debt  of  more  than  that  amount  was 
found  to  be  owing  by  the  custom  house  and  other  government  offices  for  credits  recognized 
and  ordered  to  be  paid  during  the  previous  period  of  prosperity.  Nine  million  sols  were 
still  due  on  railroad  construction,  and  a  suspension  of  this  important  work  was  threatened. 
Added  to  these  discouraging  features  of  the  situation  was  the  rapid  increase  in  the  produc- 
tion of  nitrate,  which  was  becoming  a  formidable  rival  to  guano,  being  prepared  and  exported 
free,  while  the  latter  was  exported  for  the  account  of  the  State  and  was  the  source  from 
which  three-fourths  of  the  funds  for  the  national  expenditure  were  derived.  President  Pardo 
reduced  the  estimate  of  the  home  budget  to  seventeen  million  sols,  as  it  had  stood  in  1871 
and  sought,  by  the  only  available  means,  to  raise  extraordinary  funds  sufficient  to  prevent  the 
disaster  of  a  suspension  of  the  much-needed  railroad  construction.  But  the  remedy  was 
applied  too  late,  and  all  his  efforts  were  defeated  by  circumstances  which  would  not  have 
arisen  under  normal  conditions.  The  president  was  obliged  to  borrow  large  sums  from  the 
banks,  which,  under  the  laws  then  in  force,  might  issue  notes  payable  to  bearer  at  sight  for 
three  times  the  amount  of  currency  they  had  in  hand.  The  merchants,  led  by  the  fictitious 
prosperity  founded  on  a  flattering  but  burdensome  credit,  had  given  far  too  great  expansion  to 
their  trade,  and  now  that  they  were  unable  longer  to  use  drafts  corresponding  to  the  value 
of  guano  when  making  foreign  payments,  they  were  obliged  to  export  coin,  which  was 
done  until  the  supply  was  exhausted,  only  the  banknotes  remaining  in  circulation.  As  the 
government  was  not  in  a  position  to  meet  its  obligations  to  the  banks,  which,  in  turn, 
were  unable  any  longer  to  convert  their  notes  into  currency,  a  commercial  panic  followed, 
in  187^,  with  the  long  list  of  business  failures  that  accompany  such  a  dire  event.  The 
government  came  to  the  rescue  by  granting  the  banks  a  moratorium,  which  would  enable 
them  to  get  the  necessary  cash  to  resume  the  payment  of  their  obligations  in  currency;  but 
the  government  was  unable  to  give  any  financial  assistance  and  the  required  coin  for  pay- 
ments in  cash  was  not  forthcoming  at  the  expiration  of  the  moratorium.  President  Prado, 
who  succeeded  President  Manuel  Pardo  in  1877,  arranged  a  new  loan  with  the  banks,  in 


442 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


consideration  of  wliich  the  state  assumed  the  responsibility  of  the  entire  emission  of  bank- 
notes,—fixing  the  maximum  at  eighteen  million  sols,— thus  converting  them  into  government 

notes,  and  establishing  the 
use  of  paper  money.  The 
war  with  Chile  followed 
in  1879,  and  proved  the 
culminating  disaster.  But, 
if  the  consequences  of  this 
war  were  deplorable  from 
an  economic  standpoint, 
the  conditions  which  they 
brought  about  tried  the 
mettle  of  the  nation  and 
proved  its  strength. 
Plunged  from  wealth  into 
poverty  within  a  few 
years,  with  its  commerce 
paralyzed,  its  industries 
at  a  standstill,  nearly  all 
the  private  wealth  as  well 
as  the  national  fortune 
swept  away,  Peru  bent 
under  the  crushing  weight 
of  accumulated  evils.  But, 
like  tempered  steel,  the 
national  spirit  could  bend 
without  being  broken ; 
and  with  every  lightening 
of  the  load  the  inherent 
strength  of  the  people  has 
shown  itself,  until,  to-day, 
its  optimistic  character  is 
as  dominant  as  ever. 
As  soon  as  the  war  with  Chile  was  ended  by  the  treaty  of  Ancon  in  1884,  Peru  turned 
to  the  problem  of  restoring  the  national  finances,  and  a  few  years  later  the  contract  else- 
where referred  to^was  arranged,  whereby  the  Peruvian  Corporation  assumed  the  foreign 
debt  and  agreed  to  complete  the  construction  of  projected  railways,  in  return  for  certain 
concessions  and  privileges.  The  country  began  at  once  to  recuperate,  though  slowly  at 
first,  as  might  be  supposed,  the  question  of  politics  absorbing  much  attention.  Patriotic  and 
capable  leaders  came  forward,  however,  to  meet  the  occasion  with  judgment  and  foresight. 


THE   LIMA  SAVINGS   BANK. 


FINANCIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  PROGRESS— INDUSTRIES 


44? 


One  of  the  most  important  reforms  effected  was  the  adoption  of  the  gold  standard,  which 
has  done  a  great  deal  to  attract  foreign  capital  and  to  inspire  confidence  abroad.  The  gov- 
ernment notes  that  had  been  issued  to  meet  the  needs  of  war,  became  so  depreciated  in 
value  that  they  were  little  used  and  finally  they  were  practically  withdrawn  from  circulation 
by  the  announcement  that  their  acceptance  was  optional;  immediately  the  old  coins — the 
silver  sols— began  to  reappear,  imported  from  other  Spanish-American  republics,  especially 
Central  American,  where  they  formed  at  that  time  the  circulating  medium ;  the  government 
reopened  the 
mint,  and  Peru- 
vian silver  was 
coined  into  sols ; 
at  this  juncture 
the  depreciation 
of  silver  arose, 
and  the  question 
of  establishing 
a  gold  standard 
was  debated. 
The  idea  of 
adopting  a  gold 
standard  grew  in 
favor  when  a 
second  fall  in  sil- 
ver occurred  in 
1886,  adversely 
affecting  the 
finances  of  all 
countries  that 
used  the  silver 
standard  exclu- 
sively. Presi- 
dent Pierola  gave 
a  strong  impulse 
to  the  proposed 
measure  and 
Congress  finally 
sanctioned      its 


THE   BANCO    POPULAR.  LIMA. 


adoption  in  1897. 

The  legal  equivalent  of  the  Peruvian  libra,  or  pound,  was  fixed  at  ten  sols,  which  at  once 

solved  the  problem  of  the  value  of  sols  in  circulation,  amounting  to  about  twelve  million. 


444  THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 

Then  the  free  coinage  of  silver  was  suspended  and  reimportation  of  silver  sols  was  pro- 
hibited, though  it  was  a  legal  tender  in  Peru.  Congress  also  passed  a  law  by  which  custom 
house  duties  had  to  be  paid  in  gold,  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  sterling  for  every  ten  sols, 
which  established  the  equivalent  between  the  English  sovereign  and  the  silver  sols  at  the 
rate  of  one  to  ten.  in  December,  1897,  a  law  was  passed  to  authorize  the  coinage  of 
the  libra,  of  the  same  weight  and  fineness  as  the  English  sovereign,  and  ordering  it  to  be 
received  by  the  state  as  the  equivalent  of  ten  sols,  in  1 901,  it  was  declared  by  law  that  the 
monetary  unit  in  Peru  was  the  Peruvian  libra  and  that  silver  sols  were  a  legal  tender  up  to 
the  sum  of  only  ten  sols ;  and,  two  years  later,  all  the  banks  came  to  an  agreement  to  keep 
their  accounts  and  to  perform  all  their  operations  in  the  new  legal,  money  of  Peru,  the  gold 
libra.  The  success  and  facility  with  which  this  important  monetary  reform  was  accom- 
plished does  credit  to  the  genius  of  the  financiers  who  projected  and  carried  it  through. 

The  fiscal  reports  of  the  last  ten  years  show  that  Peru  has  made  wonderful  progress  in 
the  rehabilitation  of  the  national  finances  and  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  revenue  and 
expenditure  wliich  ensures  permanent  and  solid  advancement.  A  very  important  share  of 
the  credit  for  this  financial  progress  is  due  to  the  newly  elected  President  of  Peru,  His  Excel- 
lency Don  Augusto  Leguia,  wh'o,  as  Finance  Minister  in  the  cabinets  of  President  Candamo 
and  President  Pardo,  gave  signal  proofs  of  his  superior  financial  and  administrative  gifts. 
Probably  no  other  country  can  show  such  a  rapid  increase  of  revenues  due  to  the  adminis- 
trative labors  of  one  of  its  ministers  as  can  Peru,  whose  fiscal  receipts  were  raised  from 
twelve  million  to  thirty  million  sols  annually  during  his  term  of  office  as  Minister  of  Finance. 
The  loan  of  six  million  sols,  recently  contracted  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  naval  elements, 
the  creafion  of  the  bank  of  deposits  and  consignments  and  other  financial  undertakings  of 
great  importance  to  the  country  have  been  effected  through  his  initiative  and  energy. 

Every  year  shows  an  increase  in  the  receipts  and  a  decrease  of  expenditures  under  the 
present  government.  In  all  departments  of  the  fiscal  system,  reforms  have  been  inaugurated 
with  a  view  to  strengthening  the  nafional  finances;  the  National  Company  of  Collections,  a 
joint  stock  company  that  was  formed  at  the  close  of  the  war  with  Chile  to  organize  a  system 
of  taxation  and  to  take  charge  of  the  collections  shows  by  its  latest  report  that  the  receipts 
from  taxes  increased  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  sols  from  the  last  half-year  of  1906  to 
the  same  semester  of  1907,  the  collection  from  July  to  December,  1907,  amounting  to  two 
million  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  sols.  The  interest  on  the  internal  debt  of  thirty- 
three  million  sols  has  been  paid  to  date;  and  the  claim  of  the  Guano  Consignee  Company  of 
the  United  States  has  been  paid  by"  an  issue  of  fifteen  million  sols  in  bonds  of  the  public 
debt.  The  prosperity  that  has  become  apparent  in  all  branches  of  trade  is  indicated  by 
the  profits  shown  in  the  Peruvian  Corporation's  report  for  1907,  amounting  to  more  than 
two  million  sols.  The  banking  institutions,  which  have  been  closely  idenfified  with  the 
financial  fortunes  of  the  government,  have  been  particularly  successful  in  their  negotiations 
during  the  past  year.  The  bank  of  London  and  Peru  has  had  its  securities  quoted  on  the 
Paris  Bourse,  and  has  established  a  bank  of  issue  in  Bolivia  with  a  capital  of  two  hundred 


FINANCIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  PROGRESS— INDUSTRIES 


445 


thousand  pounds;  the  Banco  Italiano  and  the  Banco  Popular  have  increased  their  capital, 
besides  adding  large  sums  to  their  reserve  funds ;  the  German  Bank  has  installed  branches 


A  NATIVE   INDISTRV   OH    THh  COAST   REGION. 


in  Callao,  Arequipa,  and  Trujillo  within  the  past  two  years;  and  the  savings  banks  and 
insurance  companies  have  enlarged  the  scope  of  their  activities. 

Commerce  has  felt  the  stimulus  of  progressive  government,  and  commercial  enterprise 
has  flourished  notably  within  the  past  five  years.  In  1902  the  imports  amounted  in  value 
to  three  and  a  half  million  pounds,  the  exports  to  three  and  three-quarter  millions;  in  1906, 
the  value  of  the  national  imports  reached  five  million  pounds  sterling  and  the  exports 
amounted  to  six  million  pounds  sterling  in  value.  The  first  half  of  1907  showed  less  trade 
returns  than  the  corresponding  semester  of  the  preceding  year,  but  the  commercial  reports 
for  the  first  half  of  the  year  1908  give  an  increase  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  thousand 
pounds  sterling  over  the  total  returns  for  the  same  period  of  1907. 

The  only  export  duties  charged  in  Peru  are :  a  three  per  cent  ad  valorem  tax  on  gold  in 
bullion  or  dust;  a  charge  of  forty  cents  per  dozen  on  "  Panama"  hats  exported  from  Paita; 
and  a  duty  of  twenty  cents  a  kilogram,  gross,  or  twenty-four  cents  a  kilogram,  net,  equiva- 
lent to  about  four  per  cent  ad  valorem,  on  Para  rubber  and  caoutchouc.  The  import  duties 
are  more  numerous;  wines  and  liquors,  tea,  coffee,  butter,  cheese,  and  a  few  other  products 
pay  a  duty  of  sixty-five  per  cent,  and  there  is  a  long  list  of  articles  on  which  a  duty  of  from 
ten  to  twenty  per  cent  is  charged;  but  all  machinery  which  is  used  directly  to  favor 
industrial  development  is  entered  free  of  duty,  as  are  also  books  and  utensils  for  the 
purpose  of  public  instruction. 


446 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NE14^  PERU 


Foreign  merchants  have  established  themselves  in  all  the  larger  towns  of  Peru,  and  in 
the  coast  region  they  have  built  up  very  important  enterprises.  The  English  merchants 
devote  themselves  especially  to  the  wholesale  import  and  export  trade,  in  which  they  have 
strong  competitors  among  the  Germans.  The  French  have  charge  of  a  great  deal  of  the 
retail  business,  particularly  in  articles  of  luxury;  and  the  Italians  are  the  principal  purveyors 
of  foreign  wines,  table  delicacies^  etc.  The  Peruvian  merchant  has  a  share  in  all  the  trade 
and  Peruvian  salesmen  travel  throughout  the  country  selling  to  the  merchants  of  the  interior 
the  goods  imported  by  the  larger  establishments  of  Lima  and  Callao.  The  North  Americans 
have  established  few  business  houses,  but  they  control  a  large  share  of  the  mining  enter- 
prises, and  are  financially  interested  in  the  construction  of  railways  and  other  public  works 
of  the  country.  Some  of  the  largest  commercial  and  industrial  establishments  of  the  United 
States  send  their  agents  to  Peru.  But  North  American  trade  is  still  in  the  infancy  of  its 
development  so  far  as  the  South  American  market  is  concerned,  few  shippers  in  the  United 
States  knowing  much  about  the  geography  of  the  great  southern  continent.  When,  as  has 
frequently  occurred,  merchandise  ordered  for  Lima  is  sent  to  Mollendo  as  the  nearest  port, 
and  goods  for  Arequipa  are  unloaded  at  Callao  by  the  shipper's  orders,  it  becomes  apparent 


A  COCAINE  FACTORY  IN   THE  MONZON  VALLEY. 


that  the  knowledge  concerning  commercial  routes  south  of  the  equator  is  decidedly  limited 
among  those  exporters  who  are  already  in  the  field,  to  say  nothing  of  those  who  have  not 


FINANCIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  PROGRESS— INDUSTRIES  447 

yet  entered  it.  But  there  is  a  growing  interest  among  merchants  of  the  United  States  in  the 
trade  of  South  America,  and  every  year  shows  an  increase  in  the  correspondence  directed 
to  the  Peruvian  Consulate  at  New  York  seeking  information  on  this  subject.  The  Consul- 
General,  Hon.  Eduardo  Higginson,  brings  large  experience  in  the  foreign  service  of  his 
country  to  the  particular  task  which  occupies  him  in  the  great  metropolis, — the  promotion 
of  commercial  relations  between  the  two  countries.  The  offices  of  the  consulate  are  fitted 
up  with  all  the  requisites  of  a  consular  bureau,  and  in  its  library  may  be  found  literature 
relating  to  the  industrial  and  commercial  conditions  of  Peru. 

It  is  impossible  that  the  reciprocity  of  trade  between  Peru  and  the  United  States  should 
show  any  marked  improvement  until  better  facilities  can  be  secured  for  rapid  and  cheap 
transportation.  But  this  is  to  be  accomplished  by  the  inauguration  of  the  new  National 
Steamship  Line,  which,  next  year,  will  cover  the  distance  between  Callao  and  Panama  in 
four  days,  and,  later,  by  the  completion  of  the  Panama  Canal.  From  1902  to  190^  the 
imports  from  the  United  States  were  increased  by  twenty  per  cent,  while  the  exports  to 
that  country  remained  stationary,  and  in  190J  declined,  owing  to  the  special  privileges 
granted  by  the  northern  republic  to  Cuban  sugars,  with  which  Peru  was  unable  to  compete; 
in  the  same  period,  the  shipments  have  more  than  doubled  from  Peru  to  Great  Britain, 
where  Peruvian  sugars  enter  on  equal  terms  with  those  of  other  countries. 

The  National  Assembly  of  Commerce  is  an  institution  of  increasing  importance  in 
Peru.  Though  recently  organized,  in  190^,  it  has  already  done  much  to  foster  trade  and 
to  promote  the  commercial  relations  of  the  country  on  a  broad  scale.  When  Secretary 
Root  visited  Lima,  he  was  made  an  honorary  member  of  this  organization,  which  works 
as  a  kind  of  auxiliary  of  the  Chambers  of  Commerce,  as  one  of  its  founders  described 
it  in  his  address  to  Mr.  Root  on  that  occasion,  "  to  carry  into  practice  the  formation  of  a 
world-wide  legislation  which  shall  mark  the  courses  in  which  the  inexhaustible  current 
of  industrial  products  ought  to  run."  In  most  of  the  larger  cities,  chambers  of  commerce 
have  been  established  to  promote  not  only  the  direct  interests  of  trade,  but  also  the 
development  of  the  national  industries,  with  the  success  of  which  the  trade  of  the  country 
is  closely  identified. 

The  encouragement  and  promotion  of  manufacturing  industry  is  especially  desirable, 
and  this  field  of  enterprise  offers  exceptional  opportunities  for  investment.  Like  all  other 
South  American  countries,  Peru  imports  many  articles  which  could  be  profitably  made  at 
home  and  for  which  it  furnishes  a  large  share  of  the  raw  material.  But,  until  comparatively 
recent  years,  few  factories  of  importance  existed  in  Peru,  and  most  of  these  date  from  the 
period  when  the  fall  in  silver  and  the  consequent  depreciation  of  the  national  currency 
made  the  importation  of  foreign  manufactured  articles  enormously  expensive,  and  encour- 
aged the  establishment  of  home  enterprises  to  compete  for  this  trade.  During  the  period 
of  the  viceroyalty,  the  home  government  prohibited  manufacturing  in  the  colonies,  in  order 
to  protect  the  commerce  of  the  mother  country;  and  in  the  earlier  days  of  the  republic  the 
conditions  were  not  favorable  to  the  development  of  this  branch  of  industry. 


448 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


THE   ITALIAN   BANK,  LIMA. 


The  most  important  manufacturing  enterprises  are  in  tlie  hands  of  the  Peruvians  them- 
selves, though  Italians  and  other  foreign  colonists  have  established  large  factories  within 

the  past  few  years.  The 
manufacture  of  cotton  and 
woollen  goods  by  the  primi- 
tive process  used  among  the 
Indians  to-day  has  been  in 
vogue  from  time  imme- 
morial, but  not  until  nearly 
half  a  century  ago,  in  1861, 
were  the  first  modern  looms 
introduced,  for  the  woollen 
factory  of  Lucre,  near  Cuzco, 
which  was  founded  by  Dr. 
Garmendia  in  i860.  The 
most  modern  establishment 
for  the  manufacture  of 
woollen  goods  is  that  of 
Marangani,  also  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Cuzco, 
founded  in  1897,  with 
Peruvian  capital  amounting  to  five  thousand  pounds,  which  has  since  been  increased  to 
thirty  thousand  pounds.  The  factory  is  now  owned  by  the  heirs  of  the  founder,  the 
largest  shareholder,  Don  J.  W.  Rodriguez  del  Carpio,  being  also  the  manager  of  the 
enterprise.  English,  German,  and  Belgian  machinery  of  the  most  modern  manufacture  is 
used,  the  factory  is  lighted  by  electricity,  as  are  also  the  houses  of  the  operatives.  All 
the  employes  are  native  workmen,  and  the  managers  of  the  various  sections  are  also 
Peruvians,  except  in  one  section,  of  which  an  Italian  expert  has  charge.  The  company 
provides  free  instruction  for  the  children  of  employes,  as  well  as  free  medical  attendance 
when  required.  Cashmeres,  flannels,  and  fine  cloths  are  manufactured  from  native  wool, 
chiefly  that  of  the  sheep,  though  some  alpaca  is  used.  Only  the  dyes  are  imported, 
everything  else  used  in  the  factory  being  of  native  origin,  and  the  dyes  are  chiefly  made 
from  woods  found  in  the  Montafia.  The  Marangani  establishment  has  direct  communica- 
tion with  Cuzco  by  telephone,  and  with  all  the  cities  of  the  republic  by  telegraph.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  progressive  and  up-to-date  enterprises  in  South  America.  The  largest 
cloth  factory  in  Peru  is  that  of  Santa  Catalina,  in  Lima,  which  produces  about  a  quarter 
of  a  million  yards  of  cashmere  and  cloths  for  the  army,  besides  various  knitted  goods. 
It  gives  work  to  between  seven  and  eight  thousand  employes  and  its  business  is  increasing 
annually.  There  are  only  four  or  five  woollen  factories  in  the  republic,  Arequipa  having 
one  of  the  larger  ones,  and  Lima  another. 


FINANCIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  PROGRESS— INDUSTRIES 


449 


The  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  has  pro<z;ressed  with  remarkable  success  since  the 
establishment  of  the  tlrst  cotton  factory  in  1874.  Five  large  and  flourishing  mills  of  this 
kind  are  now  located 
in  the  environs  of 
Lima,  besides  several 
in  other  cities,  of 
which  the  most  im- 
portant are  those  of. 
Arequipa  and  lea. 
From  these  factories, 
Peru  and  Bolivia  are 
supplied  with  cotton 
materials,  duck,  drills, 
etc.,  and  since  their 
advent,  the  importa- 
tion of  cotton  cloth 
from  Germany  and 
England  has  notably 
diminished.  The  an- 
nual output  of  Peru- 
vian cotton  factories 
is  about  twenty-five 
million     yards,    the 

consumption  of  clean  raw  cotton  being  from  two  to  three  thousand  tons  annually.  The 
capital  employed  is  estimated  at  between  four  and  five  million  sols.  The  Victoria  cotton 
factory  of  Lima  is  one  of  the  most  modern  establishments  of  its  kind  in  Peru,  and  a  visit  to 
the  various  departments  inspires  one  with  admiration  for  the  systematic  and  orderly 
appearance  of  the  place,  as  well  as  the  quality  of  the  work  done,  which  is  equal  to  the  best 
turned  out  from  similar  factories  in  Europe  and  North  America. 

The  silk  industry  is  still  in  the  experimental  stage,  so  far  as  the  making  of  fabrics 
is  concerned,  though  Lima  has  a  practical  school  of  sericulture  and  the  Department  of 
Abancay  is  giving  especial  attention  to  this  branch  of  industry.  The  making  of  Panama 
hats  occupies  a  considerable  number  of  the  population  in  Catacaos,  Eten,  and  Moyobamba, 
though  there  are  no  large  establishments  having  charge  of  their  manufacture  exclusively. 
For  the  preparation  of  cereal  and  other  food  stuffs,  several  mills  and  factories  have  been 
opened  in  Lima  and  Callao.  The  flour  mills  of  the  Santa  Rosa  Company  and  the  biscuit 
factories,  fruit-preserving  works,  chocolate  factories,  etc.,  of  these  and  other  cities  employ 
modern  machinery  and  are  successful  enterprises.  Lima,  Callao,  Arequipa,  and  Cuzco  have 
large  breweries  and  cigar  factories,  the  latter  being  also  an  industrial  feature  of  the  towns 
of  Trujillo  and  Piura. 


VESTIBULE  OF   THE   BANK   OF   LONDON   AND   PERU,  LIMA. 


4^o 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


Trujillo  has,  in  addition  to  its  other  factories,  extensive  works  for  the  elaboration  of 
cocaine.  This  drug  has  grown  greatly  in  demand  within  recent  years,  and  is  now  prepared 
in  twenty-five  Peruvian  factories,  some  of  them  located  in  the  region  of  the  coca  trees. 
The  factory  of  Monzon  is  among  the  most  important  of  these  enterprises.  Peru  produces 
enough  cocaine  to  meet  the  world's  demand,  the  annual  output  approaching  a  hundred  tons. 
It  is  remarkable  that  so  few  of  the  medicinal  plants  and  dyewoods  of  Peru  are  elaborated 
in  native  establishments.  Sulphuric  acid  could  be  produced  at  low  cost,  and  there  is  a 
promising  field  for  the  manufacture  of  dyes.  Among  the  minor  manufactures  are  paper, 
matches,  leather,  cotton  seed  oil,  lumber,  ceramics,  and  similar  useful  articles  of  universal 
necessity  or  artistic  value. 

The  Santa  Rosa  works,  inaugurated  by  the  Associated  Electric  Companies  of  Peru,  or, 
as  the  syndicate  is  sometimes  called,  the  "  Electric  Trust,"  is  a  manufacturing  industry  of 
the  greatest  importance,  it  is  established  for  the  purpose  of  generating  electricity  for  the 
entire  service  of  electric  lighting  and  the  system  of  railroads  and  street  cars  in  Lima,  Callao, 
and  Chorillos.  The  capital  employed  in  this  gigantic  enterprise  is  more  than  ten  million 
dollars  gold,  and  it  is  owned  and  controlled  by  Peruvians.  The  offices  of  the  company 
are  located  at  Santa  Rosa,  in  the  outskirts  of  Lima,  and  the  central  generating  station  is 
in  Chosica.  This  immense  establishment  is,  to-day,  capable  of  providing  fourteen  thousand 
horse-power  in  motor  force.  Nearly  all  the  electric  material  for  the  enterprise  was  purchased 
in  the  United  States.  The  Associated  Electric  Companies  represent  the  first  appearance  of 
the  modern  "trust"  in  the  Andean  republic  of  the  Pacific. 


PERUVIAN   COTTON   IN   THE   FACTORY. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 


THE   PASSING   OF   THE   OLD   PERU— ITS   LEGACY   TO   POSTERITY  — THE 

DESTINY   OF   THE   NEW   PERU 


T' 


'HE  old  Peru  is  passing, — the  dominant  traits  of  the 
nation  are  clianging, — new  life  is  apparent  in  its 
ideals,  its  institutions,  in  the  spirit  that  rules  society 
and  politics,  in  everything  tiiat  shows  the  influence  of 
a  broader  outlook,  a  greater  range  of  endeavor,  a 
loftier  aspiration.    The  traditions  of  caste  and  the 
contempt  for  utilitarian  ideals  which  constituted 
a  part  of  the  creed  of  the  colonial  aristocracy  have 
given  place  to  an  appreciation  of  true  worth  wher- 
ever found;  the  worship  of  luxury  and  pleasure 
has  ceased  to  hold  in  thrall  a  people   cradled 
in  the  pernicious  atmosphere  of  a  too  abundant 
wealth,  and  the  discipline  of  suffering  and  loss 
has  brought  out  the  inherent  strength  of  a  proud 
and  gifted  race;  stimulated  by  the  necessity  of 
keeping  up  with  the  march  of  modern  progress 
in  order  that  their  country  may  maintain  the  place 
to  which  its  past  history  and  present  possibili- 
ties entitle  it,  the  Peruvians  of  to-day  are  putting 
forth  determined  and  well-defined  efforts  to  over- 
come every  obstacle  in  tlie  path  of  their  highest  development — and  they  are  achieving 
phenomenal  success. 

But  there  is  still  much  of  the  old  Peru  that  it  is  to  be  hoped  will  long  remain.  The 
picturesque  charm  whicli  lingers  about  the  ancient  people  of  the  sierra,  in  their  quaint 
costumes  and  primitive  ways,  has  apparently  lost  little  by  the  advent  of  modern  conditions; 
these  children  of  a  fading  past  are  as  much  attached  to  their  time-honored  dress  and  to 
their  traditional  occupations  as  any  Oriental,  and  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  a  pronounced 

4P 


A  QUICHUA  MOTHER. 


4^2 


THE  OLD  ^ND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


change  in  this  particular 
is  likely  to  take  place. 
During  the  colonial  pe- 
riod the  Indians  were 
obliged  to  adopt  some 
features  of  the  Span- 
ish garb, — probably  to 
please  their  Christian 
masters, — and  it  is  not 
known  how  long  the 
process  of  transforma- 
tion required;  but  the 
present  fashion  of  the 
Indians  of  Cuzco  and 
other  localities  of  the 
sierra  is  a  survival  of 
the  costume  worn  in  the 
time  of  the  first  Spanish 
Bourbon  kings,  while 
their  jewels  still  show 
the  coat- of -arms  of 
Charles  V.  Although 
there  is  no  difference  in 
dress  to  distinguish  the  Indian  in  authority  from  his  followers,  the  Alcalde  of  the  sierra 
is  recognized  as  a  very  important  personage  among  his  fellows  by  the  silver-bound  vara 
which  he  carries;  it  is  the  emblem  of  his  authority  and  is  in  his  eyes  more  than  a  mere 
symbol;  he  will  not  part  with  it  for  an  instant  and  he  would  feel  himself  bereft  of  his 
power  to  rule  if  it  were  taken  away. 

Though  obedient  to  the  Catholic  faith,  the  Indians  have  their  own  celebrations  in 
addition  to  those  of  the  church ;  they  still  observe  the  feasts  of  the  seedtime  and  harvest, 
as  did  their  heathen  ancestors,  though  many  features  of  the  festivities  as  originally  practised 
have  been  eliminated.  The  tenacity  with  which  they  hold  to  their  traditions  is  seen  in 
many  things.  When  a  new  house  is  built,  it  is  decorated  with  flowers — a  survival  of  the 
ceremonies  held  on  such  occasions  in  the  days  of  the  Incas — and  a  party  is  invited  to  celebrate 
the  event.  Over  the  doors  of  some  old  houses  are  symbols  of  both  Incaic  and  Christian 
worship,  though  this  is  not  seen  on  the  more  recently  built  homes,  the  roofs  of  which,  with 
few  exceptions,  are  adorned  with  a  large  tin  cross,  about  two  feet  higli,  having  attached  to 
it  small  copies  of  the  various  instruments  of  torture  used  at  the  crucifixion  of  our  Saviour, 
as  well  as  other  reminders  of  that  tragedy ;  the  spear  that  pierced  his  side,  the  long  pole 
and  sponge  on  which  vinegar  was  given  to  quench  his  thirst,  the  garment  for  which  they 


DESCENDANTS   OF   THE   INCAS'   SUBJECTS. 


PASSING  OF  THE  OLD,  DESTINY  OF  THE  NEIV  PERU 


453 


cast  lots,  and  even  the  cock  that  crowed 
when  Peter  liad  thrice  denied  his  mas- 
ter, are  represented  in  conjunction  with 
the  central  emblem  of  Christianity.  The 
domicile  of  a  bridal  couple  is  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  its  being  decorated  with 
branches  of  totora  (bulrushes)  which 
are  kept  in  evidence  for  eight  days  and 
signify  that  an  invitation  is  extended  to 
all  friends  to  partake  of  the  hospitality 
of  the  newly  married  pair. 

The  change  from  old  to  new  con- 
ditions in  Peru  is  a  transition  in  which 
the  Indian  has  had  little  share;  not  be- 
cause he  is  prevented,  but  because  of 
his  disinclination  to  learn  new  ways  and 
his  lack  of  capacity  to  receive  and  apply 


A  TYPE   OF    THE   AMAZON    INDIAN. 


THE   SCION  OF  A  NOBLE   FAMILY  OF  THE   FOREST. 


modern  knowledge,  it  is  impossible  to  say 
what  may  be  accomplished  for  future  genera- 
tions, but,  judging  from  past  history,  centuries 
are  required  to  accustom  the  indigenes  to  any 
radical  change,  and  they  seem  utterly  bewildered 
in  the  face  of  the  rapid  march  of  the  present- 
day  civilization.  They  are  not  easily  induced  to 
use  modern  tools  in  their  work  even  when  the 
superiority  of  such  utensils  is  proved  to  them. 
The  effort  which  the  Indian  is  obliged  to  make 
in  order  to  grow  accustomed  to  the  use  of  the 
modern  implements  is  inconceivable  to  the  mod- 
ern mind ;  to  these  ancient  people,  it  is  a  hercu- 
lean task  to  attempt  any  new  thing,  and,  if 
allowed  to  follow  their  own  inclination,  they 
will  gladly  throw  aside  the  "  improved  "  plough 
and  the  light,  long-handled  hoe,  in  favor  of  their 
tried  and  trusted  though  old-fashioned  and 
cumbersome  tools.    Spinning  and  weaving  are 


4^4 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


favorite  occupations  of  the  Indians  of  tlie  coast  as  well  as  of  the  sierra,  and  their  primitive 
looms,  on  which  blankets  and  lighter  materials  are  made,  may  be  seen  in  most  of  their  homes. 
Not  only  in  the  descendants  of  the  Incas'  subjects  does  the  charm  of  the  past  linger  in 
many  beautiful  and  interesting  features  of  Peru  to-day.  The  influence  of  the  viceroyalty  is 
seen  in  some  of  the  most  attractive  characteristics  of  republican  Peruvians ;  their  inheritance 
from  their  colonial  ancestry  may  not  be  an  unmixed  blessing,  but  they  have  reason  to  be 
proud  of  some  of  its  advantages.    The  unanimous  verdict  of  travellers  is  that  the  Peruvians 


ALCALDES,  WITH   VARAS,  THE   INSIGNIA  OF   THEIR  AL'THORITY. 


are  a  people  of  inherited  refinement,  culture,  and  geniality,  and  that  their  capital  is  one  of 
the  most  delightful  places  in  the  world  for  a  stranger  to  visit;  their  politeness  and  courteous 
hospitality  is  a  heritage  from  the  viceroyalty, — and  it  is  more  Peruvian  than  Spanish,  being 
free  from  the  extreme  formality  which  is  the  keynote  of  Spanish  courtesy. 

The  new  Peru  is  the  result  of  a  transition  extending  over  a  long  period,  but  of  which 
the  last  steps  have  been  rapid  and  of  particular  significance.  The  heritage  of  aristocratic  Spain 
held  the  republican  Peruvians  in  bondage  long  after  the  declaration  of  their  independence 


PASSING  OF  THE  OLD,  DESTINY  OF  THE  NEfV  PERU 


ASS 


gave  verbal  freedom  and  equality  to  all.  It  was  not  possible  that  the  old  ideas  and  tenden- 
cies should  vanish  with  a  stroke  of  the  Liberator's  pen.  But  the  desire  for  liberty  grew  in 
the  hearts  of  the  people  as  its  blessings  were  ever  more  enjoyed  and  appreciated,  and  latent 
abilities  were  awakened  as  the  demand  became  imperative  for  capable,  resolute,  and  domi- 
nant leaders  to  advance  in  the  path  of  progress.  So  long  as  fortune  smiled  and  wealth 
came  easily,  it  was  not  possible  that  the  best 
characteristics  of  the  people  should  be  devel- 
oped, however,  and  it  was  not  until  adversity 
struck  a  heavy  blow  that  the  true  spirit  of  the 
nation  was  revealed. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  the  Peruvians 
are  too  gentle  for  their  own  good — that  the 
national  optimism  is  combined  with  too  large 
a  share  of  "  faith  in  a  lucky  star "  to  be  con- 
ducive of  determined  effort.  But  the  history 
of  the  past  few  years  proves  that  the  nation 
is  capable  of  advancing  in  line  with  the  most 
progressive  countries,  and  that  the  elements 
uniting  to  consolidate  the  best  interests  of  the 
new  Peru  are  not  only  unlimited  faith  and 
confidence  but  also  fine  judgment,  well- 
directed  energy,  and  established  principles.  It 
is  peculiarly  significant  of  the  tendency  of  the 
new  Peru  that  the  statesman  chosen  to  govern 
its  destinies  during  the  next  four  years  as 
president  of  the  republic  is  one  of  the  most 
capable  financiers  in  South  American  politics. 
It  is  not  because  of  his  famous  ancestry — 
he  is  a  descendant  of  the  noble  Estete  who 
distinguished  himself  during  the  period  of 
the  conquest  and  established  the  first  settle- 
ment at  Trujillo — nor  yet  for  his  scholarship, 
though  he  is  among  the  best  informed  men 
of  his  country,  but  because  he  realizes,  in  his 
wonderful  grasp  of  present-day  needs  and  possibilities,  the  aspirations  of  his  people, 
and  is  prepared  to  lead  them  to  greater  heights  than  the  nation  has  yet  known.  The 
president-elect  has  already  announced  the  policy  of  his  government,  which  is  to  be  an 
instrument  of  progress,  its  underlying  impulses  the  maintenance  of  peace  and  the  protection 
of  the  interests  and  rights  of  all  citizens.  Questions  of  sanitation,  education,  immigration, 
agriculture,  and  railroad  construction  are  to  receive  attention,  and  everything  that  may 


AN  INDIAN  WOMAN  OF   LORETO. 


4^6 


THE  OLD  AND   THE  NEIV  PERU 


contribute  to  the  national  well-being  will  have  careful  consideration.  The  staunch  principles 
of  the  man  who  is  to  direct  the  destinies  of  his  country  for  the  next  four  years  are  voiced 
in  his  declaration :  "  1  intend  to  be  the  head  of  the  nation,  not  the  head  of  a  party."  This 
is  the  spirit  of  leadership  demanded  by  the  Peruvians  to-day.  A  new  generation  is  taking 
the  place  of  the  older ;  new  vitality  pulses  through  the  veins  of  the  younger  patriot,  and  his 
nerves  are  stronger,  his  sight  is  keener  and  his  recognition  of  the  forces  that  are  moulding 
the  destinies  of  empires  to-day  is  impelling  him  to  more  active  endeavor.  That  he  does 
not  forget  the  debt  of  honor  due  to  the  noble  heroes  who  have  rendered  the  highest  services 
to  the  country  in  the  past,  while  he  recognizes  the  merit  of  those  who  are  working  for  its 
present  and  future  aggrandizement,  is  shown  by  the  liberality  with  which  monuments  are 
built  to  commemorate  their  deeds.  On  the  8th  of  September  last,  a  magnificent  pantheon 
was  dedicated  to  the  memory  of  "The  Defenders  of  the  Nation  in  the  War  of  1879";  in  its 
crypt  repose  the  remains  of  the  immortal  heroes  Admiral  Grau  and  Colonel  Bolognesi.  it  is 
the  most  imposing  monument  of  the  capital  and  shows  that  while  the  national  heart  beats 
high  with  hope  for  future  achievement,  it  is  still  true  to  the  sentiment  of  gratitude  for  com- 
patriots who  were  sacrificed  in  the  darker  days  that  are  past.  With  one  hand  clasping  the 
tender  memories  of  misfortune  and  the  other  extended  to  receive  the  blessings  of  a  more 
prosperous  day,  the  Peruvian  nation  displays  its  most  salient  characteristics,  loyalty 
and  optimism. 


A  NATIVE  WEAVER.  CHICLAYO. 


'-mr^^'w^^i 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

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120ct'60BM 


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iJ  >-■■ 


LiSilARY  u5l 


JtJi^  G     1964 


^tf^^^^ 


REC'D  LD 


JUN6    'B4-^PM 


^4Mar'6lB§ 


1^ 


CCD  t-*"^ 


WAR    5^0^^ 


i50cV62tAV 


RUC  D  LD 


OCTl    1962 


-  LD  21A-50m-4,'59 
(A17248l0)476B 


General  Library 

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